Shanghai Cooperation Organization Member Research Articles

Development of Cultural and Faith Tourism in SCO and Turkic States: Uzbekistan's Potential and the Exemplary Turkish Case

This article treats Turkish tourism sector's recent changes, focusing on its increasing relationships with the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) countries and Turkic states. The paper examines about Turkiye's efforts to expand its tourism partnerships beyond its traditional European allies and emphasizes its cooperation with SCO member countries such as Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Furthermore, it underlines Turkey's efforts to revive the ancient Silk Road—particularly through the "Middle Corridor" plan—in an effort to increase Turkic states' cultural, economic, and tourist collaboration. Cultural and religious tourism in the Turkic states is highlighted, with a particular emphasis on Turkiye and Uzbekistan. The paper concludes with practical proposals to further develop of cultural and faith tourism, i.e. effective promotional campaigns, cheap flights, and visa-free travel. Generally, the article provides a thorough overview of Turkiye's ever expanding tourism sector as well as its strategic efforts to promote significant cooperation within the SCO region.

Trade flows of Central Asian states within the framework of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization

Aim. To form a systematic understanding of the structure of trade of Central Asian states within the framework of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).Objectives. To analyze the commodity structure of trade flows and their geographical distribu- tion; to identify key characteristics of trade flow networks of Central Asian states within the SCO.Methods. Statistical analysis of the geographical, commodity, sectoral structure of exports and imports of goods, as well as the degree of their technological capacity.Results. It can be stated that there are practically no high-tech groups of goods among the significant commodity groups in the trade of Central Asian SCO member states with their part- ners in this organization. Moreover, to a large extent the growth of trade turnover of the countries is conditioned by the intensification of supplies of various raw materials to China (oil, ore, textile and agrarian raw materials). The pattern of “raw materials for raw materials” trade exchange often persists, especially between the Central Asian states proper; moreover, these countries are to a large extent competitors, as the commodity structure of their export flows largely coincides (in particular, in terms of raw materials and agrarian products). Conclusions. The current situation hampers the development of industrial cooperation between the SCO countries. The fact that the “One Belt - One Road” initiative is based on the established trade specializations of the countries may, on the one hand, “revive” trade relations in the region, on the other hand, consolidate the role of Central Asian states as suppliers of raw ma- terials for China.

Methodology for Combating Extremism in Cyberspace: Experience of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization

The studies of extremist discourse in cyberspace use set scientific methods to protect traditional spiritual values, such as state sovereignty, human rights and freedoms, historical and cultural heritage. The experience of the member States of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) on the implementation of regional international agreements aimed at combating extremism should be applied in the organization of countering extremist crimes committed using digital technologies.Aim . To characterize approaches to combating extremism in cyberspace within the SCO and to determine the methodology for assessing the degree of public danger of manifestations of extremism.Methods. The study on extremism in SCO apply a comparative legal method when posing the problem of criminalization of extremist practices and use discourse analysis of the extremism in cyberspace problem for assessing the public danger of radical ideology.Results. Three groups of methods are used in the fight against extremism: methods of legal regulation, methods of studying and assessing the public danger of extremist materials and methods of scientific research of extremism. Prohibitive legal regulation in cyberspace is applied to media content that, according to the conclusion of linguistic expertise, contains signs of extremist materials. The doctrinal basis for the legal assessment of the linguistic expertise of extremist materials is the socio-legal research conducted in the SCO member states.Conclusions. The propaganda of extremism in cyberspace qualifies as an abuse of freedom of speech, since extremist ideology leads to terrorism. The SCO consensus on the need to combat extremism is based on a scientific methods system for radical ideology research, among which discourse analysis and narrative dialogue research will play an increasing role with the digital transformation.

SCO and the US: Convergence and Divergence of Interests

There were six autonomous Muslim countries in the area following the collapse of the USSR. They still had economic and security issues and were undeveloped. Together with China and Russia, three Central Asian states Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan have agreed to establish an organization to settle their border disputes and address security concerns. The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), was established as a defence alliance in 2001 to combat three evils (terrorism, extremism, and separatism). Due to the abundance of natural resources in the Central Asian region, regional and extra-regional powers also wish to demonstrate their presence in the area for the sake of their own national interests. By analyzing the secondary sources of data, it has been established that SCO has the capacity to make use of local resources.The USA wants to establish its influence in the Central Asian area as a superpower. The major countries have hegemonic aspirations in the area, particularly Russia, China, and the USA. The SCO and the USA do not directly oppose one another. A conflict between the US and the SCO members may result from the USA's backing for the democratic movement in the Central Asian States.

EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL OF THE CHINA-PAKISTAN ECONOMIC CORRIDOR (CPEC): A GATEWAY TO REGIONAL CONNECTIVITY AND INTEGRATION WITHIN THE SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION (SCO)

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) was founded as the "Shanghai Five" in 1996, and since becoming the SCO in 2001, it has made significant progress in a number of fields, especially in the areas of security and the economy. At the 17th Astana summit, Pakistan's accession to the SCO has further highlighted the strategic significance of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). The aim of this study is to examine the potential features of the CPEC regional connectivity between South Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East, as well as its numerous positive outcomes for its members. This research is not only a review of the literature, but also an in-depth understanding of the primary sources. Primary data has been gathered while using a qualitative research methodology. Further, a semi-structured interview approach is used in which 20 participants have been interviewed. The study findings suggest that the CPEC is an exceptional economic corridor that sets it apart from other corridors in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), providing promising prospects for SCO member states in terms of regional connectivity, enhanced economic cooperation, and energy corridor development in the future.

Relationship between Complex Integration Indices and Inflation Indicators and Their Impact on the Development of Regional Cooperation between Countries to Reduce the Level of Inflationary Risks: Case of the SCO Member Countries

In this study, we focused on the development of cooperation between partner countries, which may affect the reduction of inflationary risks for partnership participants in the context of global and urgent changes in the world. This article aims to identify the relationship between inflation indicators and various types of globalization (complex integration indices) of each of the member countries of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in order to develop measures to contain inflation risks in these countries. The authors used the methods of pairwise linear regression, correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression. As variables, the authors used complex indicators that characterize six types of globalization: Economic, financial, demographic, industrial, information, and political indices. The authors concluded that China and India more effectively curb inflation and are less prone to inflation risks. The inflation rate and the independent variables have a close negative correlation, which indicates a strong degree of mutual influence and has a downward effect on the consumer price index. The most significant variables that have a strong influence on the inflation rate are the factors of financial and information integration. The impact of other types of integration considered in this study is not significant. In order to reduce the level of inflationary risks, the SCO member countries most vulnerable to the price volatility of raw materials (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan) are encouraged to develop trade cooperation more actively, for example, by reducing or eliminating import duties on raw materials from the SCO countries.

New approaches to international reserves: The lack of credibility in reserve currencies

The ongoing international reserve paradigm based on trust will experience a major transformation despite being convenient, flexible and low-cost. The underlying issue is a loss of trust. Due to the massive financial sanctions imposed on Russia and other states, traditional reserve currencies have lost their footing, compromising confidence in international reserves. Consequently, countries will need a comprehensive revision of their reserve asset management options. This paper overviews these options, which range from trade-offs to non-orthodox solutions. In total, we list twelve options, which can be categorized into three groups according to their novelty and “degree of orthodoxy­.” The first group implies countries can expand the use of available instruments, i.e., investments in gold, renminbi, and currencies of friendly countries, and enlarge the network of swap lines and the toolbox of sovereign wealth funds. In the second group, options call for the introduction of new mechanisms for international reserves functions, such as accumulating physical resources and private cryptocurrencies­, issuing stablecoins by central banks, and building up assets of regional financing arrangements. The third group includes options to shift the energy standard (currency) paradigm and establish a synthetic international currency or form a macroeconomic paradigm with no international reserves. Furthermore, applying our analysis, we move beyond Russia and look at the issue from the perspective of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization members and observers, as it is a leading platform where countries openly discuss this matter.

Exploration of the impact of demographic changes on life insurance consumption: empirical analysis based on Shanghai Cooperation Organization

Based on the panel data of eight member states of Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) from 1996 to 2019, this study explores the impact of demographic changes on life insurance consumption in SCO member countries under the framework of static panel model and dynamic panel model. And the study analyzes the heterogeneity of religious division and different aging degrees. The empirical results show that both old-age dependency ratio and teenager dependency ratio have positive impacts on life insurance consumption in the SCO countries. Besides, the current consumption of ordinary life insurance significantly stimulates the future consumption of ordinary life insurance. Furthermore, demographic changes have heterogeneous impacts on life insurance consumption in terms of different religions and different degrees of aging. Our findings provide managerial implications for insurance companies that carry out life insurance business in SCO member states. Insurance companies should consider the policyholders’ life insurance consumption in accordance with demographic changes of both old-age dependency ratio and teenager dependency ratio, and also take differentiated life insurance sales strategies according to different degrees of aging and whether the residents believe in Islam.

Шанхайская организация сотрудничества и проблемы региональной безопасности

The article considers the place and role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in the modern system of international relations. It analyzes the Organization’s role in regional security, its expansion process, as well as the SCO’s political and legal basis and structural subdivisions. It is noted that regional security remains the priority of the SCO member countries and the Organization itself; the focus of the Organization is on the fight against international terrorism and extremism. The SCO groundworks were set within the framework of the Shanghai Five Group. The main reason for the rapprochement of the five states was the need to settle mutual claims borders. Cooperation within the SCO allowed Kazakhstan to settle several disputed terri- torial issues, and the systematic and transparent reduction of the armed forces in the border areas contributed to the mitigation of military-political tension. An important moment in the Organization’s formation was the admission of India and Pakistan as full members that occurred during the Astana Summit. That expansion resulted in making the SCO one of the largest international organizations and the largest regional association in the world today. The paper presents the main provisions of the Declarations signed in Bishkek and Qingdao. The role of Kazakhstan in the SCO and the activities of the Shanghai Organization during the COVID-19pandemic are presented as separate aspects of the article.

He Shanghai Cooperation Organization and its role in the contemporary system of international relations (On the 20th anniversary of the SCO)

This year marks the 20th anniversary of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). This is a good opportunity to assess its performance over the past two decades, to draw some conclusions, and to discuss possible future developments of the SCO. The author examines milestones in the formation of the SCO, its institutional structure, as well as its key activities which encompass four focal areas: politics, security, economy, and humanitarian cooperation. The paper focuses on the decisions of the 21st SCO Summit in Dushanbe, especially those aimed at strengthening cooperation in combating the eff ects of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and addressing security challenges, arising from the latest developments in Afghanistan. The latter particularly imply an increasing threat of terrorism, extremism, and drug traffi cking from Afghanistan to neighboring countries in Central Asia. The author emphasizes the crucial role of the SCO Regional Antiterrorist Structure (RATS) in countering these threats. Finally, the paper addresses both the circumstances and possible implications of Iran’s ascension to a full SCO member, which was approved during the summit in Dushanbe. The author concludes that over the past two decades the SCO has successfully transitioned from an important, yet regional in scope and framework, organization to an infl uential global actor, which plays a major role in the maintenance of peace and security in Central Asia and could serve as a model for the establishment of a new non-confrontational approach to the interstate relations.

National innovation systems and technology transfer of SCO countries

The article considers the forms and conditions of interaction between the participants in the innovation process, the specialties of creating and developing the organizational system of technology transfer in the member countries of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). Based on the analysis of transfer systems operating in various countries (China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan), the authors highlight key and most promising areas for the development of integration of the scientific, educational, industrial spheres and the state in order to form special mechanisms for organizing innovative processes that ensure effective interaction between all its participants. The purpose of the article is to analyze the national innovation systems of SCO member countries, since each of these countries has gone its own way of innovative development, justified by regional characteristics (climatic, cultural, socio-economic, etc.). As basic research methods we used system approach, comparative and statistical analysis of indicative values of innovation and technological development of the SCO member countries.The authors conclude that it is necessary to create an organizational system based on the integration of state institutions, science, business and education in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization member countries in order to form competitive high-tech products, improve the export structure by increasing the share of innovative products in it and reducing the raw materials orientation, and increase the status of countries in the world technology market.

The Role of the SCO in the Process of Neutralizing Regional Challenges and Threats

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is considered to be one of the key mechanisms for maintaining stability and security in Eurasia. Over the years of its existence the SCO gained considerable political weight and authority on the world stage. There are extremely pessimistic scenarios for the development of events in Afghanistan with the withdrawal of the United States Armed Forces from Afghanistan and the coming Taliban to power in this country in 2021. There is a high probability of aggravation of regional challenges and threats in the face of terrorism, drug smuggling, illegal migration, humanitarian catastrophe. Being an important element of the Eurasian security architecture the SCO has a good potential to counter these threats. Over the years of the SCO’s existence a solid legislative framework was developed within the organization and coordination mechanisms was created to counter regional threats. The national interests and security of the SCO member states are directly related to the situation in Afghanistan. That is why the Afghan issue is always on the agenda of the organization. Despite the emerging differences between the SCO member states on the Afghan issue a common position was developed at the anniversary summit of the organization in September 2021 in Dushanbe. All SCO members supported the solution of the Afghan problem through political and diplomatic means and stressed the need to form an inclusive government. The decision to accept Iran as a full member of the SCO was a significant event for the organization. As a full participant Iran became an additional advantage for the organization in solving regional problems. The factor of Iran which has a significant impact on the development of Afghanistan may become one of the key factors in building relations with the new Afghan authorities. Thus the SCO has a significant integration potential in the field of security and should play a positive role in the Afghan problem.

The Role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization in the Development of the Countries of Central Asian Transport and Logistics Potential

The publication examines actual issues of interstate economic cooperation of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states in the framework of building new transport and communication routes. There was provided the analysis of the SCO normative legal documents in the terms of transport regulation, both road and rail, there were outlined the prospects and opportunities which emerge as a result of the signing of bilateral and multilateral agreements between the members of the Organization. The author describes the current situation of international transport communication routes and also reveals in details the initiatives proposed by Uzbekistan, pointing out his key role in the formation of new Eurasian transit corridors and arteries. Considering the issue of modern Eurasian interstate cooperation mechanisms’conjugation from an standpoint of creating and improving transport and logistics infrastructure, the author notes the possibility of implementing the initiatives of Russia and China on the SCO platform. Combination of such potential integration projects as the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the Silk Road Economic Belt (SREB) on the Shanghai Organization platform will create a new model of economic cooperation in the Russia-China-Central Asia triangle. The article also examines the measures taken by the SCO member states to build new and modernize existing road and rail routes on their own territories and on the territory of neighboring states. In the conclusion, it is pointed out that further positive shifts in the developing of the Shanghai Organization transport sector will largely depend on the ability of its participants to take a coordinated policy in the transport and logistics sector.

SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION AS A PLATFORM FOR PROMOTING THE AGENDA OF CHINA’S BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE

The article discusses main issues and tendencies of two China-proposed initiatives, namely Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The key focus of the research combines the major points and expected results of BRI and the growing role of SCO in current International Relations. While exploring these two structures, we conclude that SCO is pushing forward BRI, serving as a strong influential and effective platform. The organization helped China to build up unprecedentedly intense ties with local states, creating natural conditions to play an active and constructive role in BRI agenda. From the very beginning Chinese BRI is closely related with SCO sharing reciprocal approaches, common features, principles and goals. They are historically linked together both geographically and ideologically. Specific projects under BRI together with the existing economic cooperation structure of SCO are truly complementing each other. SCO members view the BRI favorably, and China’s effective usage of the SCO has already resulted in many of its foreign policy goals being reached or at least had significant progress.

Pakistan’s emerging regional politico-economic role in the SCO

Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is presently a Eurasian politico-economic bloc having two South Asian members, Pakistan and India. The aim of the study was to evaluate the prospective role of Pakistan in the SCO with qualitative study based on interviews. On June 2017, Pakistan was granted permanent membership in the SCO during its 16th Heads of State Summit in Astana. By associating itself as a permanent member, summit allows Pakistan to contribute to regional development alongside other key regional players, Russia and China and India. The study gave four findings that how multilateralism was having a calming effect on a regional conflict, Pakistan embracing independence from isolation through Trans-Afghanistan gas pipeline. Through CPEC, Pakistan was offering the SCO member countries an economic hallway. And how the Eurasian politico-economic ambitions to reach the warm waters of the Arabian Sea was perceived as hampering the Western economic interests, thereby offering a major impediment to Pakistan’s emerging role in the SCO. Moreover, SCO participation will help enhance Pakistan's worldwide socio-economic objectives. This study examines the socio-politico and economic aspirations of Pakistan and benefit due to ties with SCO member countries.

Demographic and Cultural Factors Influencing the Adoption of B2C E-Commerce in SCO Region

In the era of digitalization, e-commerce is providing exceptional opportunities to access domestic and international markets and is believed to be one of the main tools for poverty reduction and development acceleration. Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), as one of the main intergovernmental organizations in Eurasia, is taking measures to develop e-commerce in the region. However, SCO member states vary in terms of e-commerce experience due to dissimilar economic situations and cultural differences. The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors that affect B2C e-commerce adoption in the SCO region. The main objective of the study is to integrate the demographic characteristics with Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in order to determine the factors of e-commerce adoption among customers in SCO member states. The result shows that in SCO countries, e-commerce is more spread amongst young females who are currently employed, and therefore have high education levels and incomes. From the perspective of the national culture, SCO member countries with high individualism, low uncertainty avoidance, and low indulgence level have more e-commerce customers than the other SCO member states.

Demographic and Cultural Factors Influencing the Adoption of B2C E-Commerce in SCO Region

In the era of digitalization, e-commerce is providing exceptional opportunities to access domestic and international markets and is believed to be one of the main tools for poverty reduction and development acceleration. Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), as one of the main intergovernmental organizations in Eurasia, is taking measures to develop e-commerce in the region. However, SCO member states vary in terms of e-commerce experience due to dissimilar economic situations and cultural differences. The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors that affect B2C e-commerce adoption in the SCO region. The main objective of the study is to integrate the demographic characteristics with Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in order to determine the factors of e-commerce adoption among customers in SCO member states. The result shows that in SCO countries, e-commerce is more spread amongst young females who are currently employed, and therefore have high education levels and incomes. From the perspective of the national culture, SCO member countries with high individualism, low uncertainty avoidance, and low indulgence level have more e-commerce customers than the other SCO member states.

Spatial Effects of Energy Consumption and Green GDP in Regional Agreements

One of the main factors in environmental degradation and climate change is the consumption of fossil fuels. For this reason, cooperation between countries to overcome environmental challenges is seen more than ever. In this regard, regional economic treaties are a good platform for advancing common policies in the development of renewable energy, because this type of energy has fewer external effects on the environment. Accordingly, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the spatial effects of energy consumption and green production in Shanghai Cooperation Organization member states. For this purpose, the spatial panel data econometric approach has been used. Spatial effects refer to the effects of neighboring countries. According to CO2 emissions, the spatial effects of the positive or negative effects of these emissions and other determinants of neighboring countries are local. The results show that although both fossil fuels and renewable energy have a negative effect on green GDP, the impact of fossil fuels is almost four times greater. On the other hand, proximity and membership in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization have had a positive effect on green GDP in member countries, as countries have tried to coordinate their development policies in the field of renewable energy. Therefore, the development and strengthening of regional cooperation can play an effective role in controlling pollution caused by fossil fuel consumption and ultimately improve green production.

The Political Economy of China’s Rising Role in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO): Leading with Balance

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) has become the most important vehicle for Chinese cooperation with Central Asian member states and Russia. China seeks to play an active role and exert strong influence in the SCO for both economic reasons and strategic considerations. China aims to resolve territorial and border issues with Central Asian states, maintain stability in Xinjiang, develop the economy of western areas, and ensure energy security by playing a leading role in the SCO. Analyzing China’s role in the SCO and the related opportunities and challenges is the primary goal of this paper. The Chinese government uses economic cooperation to exert influence within the SCO. However, the Chinese government must still overcome numerous challenges, including reconciling mistrust and conflict among SCO member states, reducing Russian suspicion of Chinese intention, response to transformation of the SCO, and dilemmas regarding regional instability.

Существующие механизмы Шанхайской организации сотрудничества и проблемы борьбы с нетрадиционными вызовами безопасности

Central Asia is extremely important for the security of Russia, China and the Eurasian region, both historically and at present. Unconventional security challenges, led by terrorism, extremism and separatism, which in the official Chinese rhetoric and official documents of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) are designated as the ‘three forces of evil,’ pose a serious challenge to the security of China, Russia, the countries of Central Asia and Eurasia in general. Over the 20 years of the SCO’s history, proceeding from their ‘Shanghai spirit,’ the participating countries have created unique legislative and organizational mechanisms for a joint strike against the ‘three forces of evil,’ as well as mechanisms for bilateral and multilateral antiterrorist exercises. The most important of these is the Peace Mission joint exercise, which has been regularly held since 2005. These mechanisms of cooperation within the SCO embody the spirit of solidarity, mutual trust and cooperation, reflect the ability of the members of the organization to jointly counter the ‘three forces of evil’ and respond to related problems, and also symbolize the SCO’s determination to protect stability in the region and peace in the world. The organization has made a significant contribution to ensuring security in the region. Nevertheless, in the face of existing problems and new challenges such as potential competition and disagreements within the organization, problems with new members after the expansion of the membership, and also the ineffective functioning of some of the SCO’s security instruments, all SCO members need to strengthen their cooperation and open new ways for organizing the SCO to fulfil well its unique role to ensure security in the territory of SCO states and in Eurasia as a whole. The new model of relations—‘Russian-Chinese relations of comprehensive partnership and strategic interaction entering a new era’—that underlies the SCO gives the organization greater stability. The SCO is a unique organization on the territory of Eurasia and has both implemented an important innovation in the theory and practice of international relations and opened a new model of regional cooperation. Therefore, it can be stated with a high degree of confidence that multilateral cooperation in the field of security will gradually deepen.