Shahr-i Sokhta Research Articles

Manufacturing architecture, evidence of pottery production from Tappeh Graziani, Sistan, Iran

In West Asia, at the end of the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, inter-regional exchanges and trades increased, and the southeastern region of Iran played a key role in these trades due to its geographical location. At this point in time, we witness the formation of the largest urban center, namely Shahr-i Sokhta, with countless satellite settlements and industrial sites. In order to educate the students of the university of Zabol and also to examine the cultural, social and economic characteristics of Hirmand’s civilization area, the author excavated the three seasons of Tappeh Graziani, where archaeological evidences of residential architecture, industrial productions and administrative management were found. In this article, an attempt is made to examine evidence related to pottery production in this satellite settlement of Shahr-i Sokhta based on the first season excavations. The pottery kilns show that part of the economy of this site depended on pottery production. The above kiln is closed type with a semi-circular plan, and the reconstruction of the floor shows that this kiln has been used for a long time.

Tracking of Infectious Diseases in Shahr-i Sokhta (Burnt City) during the Bronze Age (ca. 3200-2200 BCE) through Anemic Signs Observed in Excavated Human Skeletons

Background: The intriguing area of paleopathology merges the disciplines of archeology and biological studies. Using this line of research, it is possible to identify diseases that have left skeletal traces in the past. In addition, diseases such as various anemia that occur in childhood, when bone tissue is soft and retains evidence, can be identified in ancient bones. Cribra orbitalia (Co), cribra cranii (Cc), and porotic hyperostosis (Ph) were ancient skeletal remains' most common degenerative anomalies. Methods: Shahr-i Sokhta dated back to 3200-1800 BCE, is the subject of our research; it is located in Sistan and Baluchistan province (Iran). The research was done on the archaeological data collected during the MAIPS expeditions at Shahr-i Sokhta (2017–2021) kept at the storage of the excavated materials on the site. The skeletal remains were examined for bone abnormalities such as Co, Cc, and Ph. These symptoms were analyzed to obtain traces of anemia-related diseases at this site. Data has been utilized following the Data Collection Codebook Results: Ninety-six adults were studied while the anemic signs of CC and Co are respectively seen in 27/72 (37.5 %) and 10/57 (17; 5 %), and these samples have been kept for future analysis. Conclusion: Bones may narrate a person's life, their gender and how old they were when they died besides the diseases they had. Some of the skeletons show signs of anemia, Classical paleopathology lets us to reconfirm studying diseases by further targeted sampling using molecular methods.

Female biased adult sex ratio in the Bronze Age cemetery of Shahr-i Sokhta (Iran) as an indicator of long distance trade and matrilocality.

This paper starts from the unusual observation of the overrepresentation of females among adults in the cemetery of Bronze Age Shahr-i Sokhta (Seistan, Iran) and explores the post marital residence pattern. By integrating taphonomical (skeletal preservation), anthropological (sex ratio [SR], sexual dimorphism, stress indicators, age at death), archeological (long distance trade indicators, habitation floor area, social role of women), and ancient DNA (heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes) data we test the hypothesis of post marital matrilocality in the site. We computed the SR (pelvis-based sex determination) in a random unpublished adult sample from the cemetery of Shahr-i Sokhta and in two samples previously published by other authors. We used comparative data on SR from: a large Supra Regional multi-chronological sample of sites, n = 47, with 8808 adult sexed individuals, from Southern Europe, Egypt, Middle East, Southern Russia; a Regional Bronze Age sample of sites (n = 10) from Bactria Margiana and Indus Valley with 1324 adult sexed individuals. We estimated the heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes compared with the rest of the autosomes on the assumption that in a matrilocal society females should show lower variability than men. Adult SR in a sample (n = 549) from Shahr-i Sokhta is 70.5, the overrepresentation of females is shared with Regional Bronze Age sites from Bactria Margiana (SR = 72.09) and Indus Valley (SR = 67.54). On the contrary, in a larger Supra Regional multi-chronological sample of sites, mean SR ranges between 112.7 (Bronze Age) and 163.1 (Middle Ages). Taphonomical and anthropological indicators do not explain the overrepresentation of female skeletons. Archeological indicators suggest a high social status of women and that the society was devoted to long range trade activities. heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes are in agreement with a matrilocal society. Indicators suggest that Bronze Age Shahr-ì Sokhta was a matrilocal society and that long distance trade was an important economic factor producing an overrepresentation of adult female skeletons in the cemetery.

The Investigation of residential architecture in the Bronze Age. Tape Yal, Sistan and Baluchestan province, Iran

The first villages were formed during the Neolithic period, when people began building residential architecture. Villages continued to exist in Iran until the 2nd half of the 4th millennium BC, when the first cities appeared. Settlement in Shahr-i Sokhta had begun during this period, and in the 3rd millennium BC, the city’s size expanded and many related-settlement sites were formed in the Sistan plain. A prominent related-settlement site of Shahr-i Sokhta is Tape Yal or Taleb Khan 2, located 11 kilometres from the city. An excavation was conducted at this site by one of the author. This article analyses the architectural features of this site, a Bronze Age village of the Hirmand civilization, based on the findings of this excavation. It has been determined that this site contains residential buildings, workshops, and storage rooms with mudbrick construction. The above residential buildings probably belonged to the craftsmen of this village who lived next to their workshops.

A Double Burial from Shahr-I Sokhta Necropolis (Iran). Bioarcheological Investigations and Non-Invasive Biotechnological Studies on Fragments of Human Remains

The archaeological site of Shahr-i Sokhta, in the Sistan region of south-eastern Iran, is noted for the exceptional preservation of human remains documented in its necropolis. This report describes the results of a non-destructive multidisciplinary investigation into a double burial excavated at Shahr-i Sokhta, preserving two skeletons of subadults. The first part of this study provides an archaeotanatological and bioarchaeological description of the burial. Next, we detail the results of the biotechnological techniques applied to bone fragments pertaining to the femurs of the buried children. Following a non-destructive process for studying these samples, we employ a micromolecular technique based on morphological observation using optical, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. This molecular analysis of the bone fragments proves the presence of organic compounds such as tubulin. Through these investigations, we demonstrate that it is possible, utilizing only a few grams of sample, to obtain useful details for scientific research based on non-destructive interdisciplinary investigations.

To be or not to be local: a provenance study of archaeological ceramics from Shahr-i Sokhta, eastern Iran

Findings from the archaeological site of Shahr-i Sokhta in eastern Iran include a wide range of undecorated, monochrome, and polychrome ceramics with gray, red, and buff-colored bodies that date back to a period spanning from 3200 to 1800 B.C.E. Given the large number and variety of ceramics unearthed from Shahr-i Sokhta, the provenance of these wares has remained a subject of controversy. Based on compositional data obtained from quantitative wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) spectroscopy studies and petrographic observations, findings from this study provide information that can be used to determine whether the ceramics from Shahr-i Sokhta were manufactured locally or were imported from elsewhere. We show here that the chemical components of a large group of ceramics with gray, red, and buff-colored bodies are similar to those found in local clay sources and kiln wasters, suggesting local production of these wares. However, one group of red and gray-colored wares demonstrated entirely different chemistry, suggesting a different origin. In support of the quantitative WDXRF data, petrofabric analysis of the first group of buff, gray, and red wares revealed poorly sorted basaltic clasts similar to those found randomly distributed in the matrix of local clays. By contrast, the non-local gray and red wares exhibited fine-grained clay bodies with sorted distribution of fine-grained quartz within the clay matrix.

First permanent molars with accentuated line patterns: Assessment of childhood health in an urban complex of the fifth millennium before the present

ObjectivesThe objectives are 1) to calculate the position of highly accentuated lines in dental enamel of a group of individuals from Shahr-i-Sokhta, a thriving urban centre in Bronze Age South West Asia; 2) to identify peak frequencies of physiologically stressful periods during early childhood of these individuals; and 3) to relate these peak frequencies to developmental milestones at population level. DesignWe analysed highly accentuated lines in the enamel of nine (n = 9) permanent mandibular first molars of nine individuals from the 5th millennium before the present urban and long-distance-trading complex, Shahr-i Sokhta (Iran). Age at death ranged between 4.5 years and 18−20 years. Permanent mandibular first molar enamel begins to mineralise before birth, and is normally completed sometime between 2.1–3.3 years, giving us insight to early childhood physiological stress, the ages at which it occurs, and any peaks in the frequencies in highly accentuated line formation, through histological sections investigated using transmitted light microscopy. ResultsHighly accentuated line peak frequencies occur in the sample at c. four, nine, eleven, and twelve months. After 1 year of age, no more peaks occur. ConclusionThe peak frequencies coincide with the timing timing of the type of developmental milestones which may have exposed the individuals to an increased pathogen load, injury, or sub-optimal diet. We note similarity in peak timings in the few published, disparate populations, suggest a potential link with attainment of developmental milestones connected with morbidity, and propose reporting standardised statistics to enable exploration of differences between populations in terms of postnatal health-related stress.

Synchrotron radiation micro X-Ray Fluorescence (SR-μXRF) elemental mapping of ancient hair: Metals and health at 3rd millennium BCE Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran

Only a handful of studies using synchrotron radiation enabled approaches to ancient human hair have been undertaken to date, few studies explore metal element distribution within ancient hair, and none Cu in particular. This paper shows how key archaeological questions, such as effects of intensive metal and craft work on human health, can be investigated using synchrotron radiation micro X-Ray Fluorescence (SR-μXRF) in exploring biogenic versus diagenetic/environmental uptake of metals, and copper in particular, in ancient human hair. The ID21 scanning X-ray microscope optimized for 2D μXRF (elemental maps) was used at the ESRF (European Synchrotron Radiation Facility) to obtain detailed elemental maps, including Cu, in ancient hair sections (10 μm) of eight individuals (n = 8), as well as modern hair controls (n = 2). Differentiation in the levels of Cu were discovered between different skeletal individuals from the site of Shahr-i Sokhta, a 3rd millennium BCE large urban site with intensive metalwork and other craft work activities in ancient Iran. In particular, hair of a young female showed elevated levels of Cu, with highest values distributed within the cortex. This distribution of elevated levels of Cu, together with contextual data, points to biogenic, rather than diagenetic/environmental source for the uptake of Cu.

Who Holds the Keys? Identifying Female Administrators at Shahr-i Sokhta

ABSTRACT In recent years scholars who study ancient economies have sharpened their focus on the role of women within these networks and on use of seals in their administration. Yet, until recently, little attention has been paid to the relationship between sex and seal ownership and/or use. This paper uses the remarkable evidence from the site of Shahr-i Sokhta in Iran to address this question. While seals from the habitation areas of the site demonstrate significant changes in shape, material and iconography over time, those found in the necropolis establish who owned seals and how they were worn. On the practical side, excavated sealings document the administration of the site. This paper compares the physical and iconographic aspects of seals found in the cemetery with those of seals used for administrative sealing to identify different groups of people responsible for controlling goods and resources. I use the observed similarity between seals used for sealing and those found buried in women's graves to suggest that women were responsible for most of the administrative sealing at Shahr-i Sokhta in the mid-third millennium BC, and to call into question the often-unchallenged assumption that men were by default responsible for administration in ancient societies.

The Effect of Trading Lapis Lazuli on the Settlements in the East of Iran's Central Plateau (3<sup>rd</sup>–4<sup>th</sup> Mill. BCE)

Lapis lazuli was one of the ancient world's most precious stones, extensively traded during the third and fourth millennia and important for the settlement of Shahr-i Sokhta in Sistan and Baluchestan province. The authors scrutinised recent archaeological evidence in order to evaluate the impact of the lapis lazuli trade between this part of Persia with locations as far apart as Central Asia and southern Egypt. The raw material came from mines in Badakhshan (northern Afghanistan), whilst the evidence suggests that Shahr-i Sokhta became a wealthy production and trading centre for lapis lazuli, which was exported as jewellery and as ornaments for temples and palaces. This would explain why the city also became the social, political, economic and cultural centre of the whole region for much of the third millennium.

The Effect of Trading Lapis Lazuli on the Settlements in the East of Iran's Central Plateau (3rd–4th Mill. BCE)

Lapis lazuli was one of the ancient world's most precious stones, extensively traded during the third and fourth millennia and important for the settlement of Shahr-i Sokhta in Sistan and Baluchestan province. The authors scrutinised recent archaeological evidence in order to evaluate the impact of the lapis lazuli trade between this part of Persia with locations as far apart as Central Asia and southern Egypt. The raw material came from mines in Badakhshan (northern Afghanistan), whilst the evidence suggests that Shahr-i Sokhta became a wealthy production and trading centre for lapis lazuli, which was exported as jewellery and as ornaments for temples and palaces. This would explain why the city also became the social, political, economic and cultural centre of the whole region for much of the third millennium.

The formative phase of the Helmand Civilization, Iran and Afghanistan: New data from compositional analysis of ceramics from Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran

The Helmand Civilization in southern Afghanistan and southeastern Iran dates to the third millennium BCE and is best documented by the sites of Shahr-i Sokhta (Iran) and Mundigak (Afghanistan). Its formative phase in the late fourth/early third millennia BCE corresponds to a period that witnesses for the first time a substantial increase in interregional relationships within and between the Indo-Iranian Borderlands and southern Central Asia. Period I at Shahr-i Sokhta is a good illustration of this phenomenon as this period's remains – particularly the ceramics – are characterized by numerous traits with relationships to various, distant cultural spheres located in Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Yet, in many cases, the nature of these relationships remains unclear. In this article, we utilize Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) on different ceramic styles from Shahr-i Sokhta Period I along with one sherd from Mundigak Period III in order to determine whether these shared traits represent actual exchange among separate cultural groups or local imitations of distant ceramic styles. Our results provide new information on the intercultural interactions that occurred during the foundation period of Shahr-i Sokhta and the formative phase of the Helmand Civilization. More broadly, they add another piece to the research that aims to define the nature of the increasing interregional relationships visible around 3000 BCE in eastern Middle Asia.

Four shades of black: Non-invasive scientific studies on the painted potteries from Shahr-i Sokhta, eastern Iran

Shahr-i Sokhta in east of Iran represents different stages of settlements from the fourth to the second millennium BC. A large assemblage of ceramics shards has been unearthed from Shahr-i Sokhta many of which are decorated with different shades of black, yellow and red colours. Micro X-ray fluorescence (μ-XRF) and micro-Raman spectroscopy (μ-Raman) on some seventy painted shards from Shahr-i Sokhta with polychrome, bi-chrome and monochrome decorations showed haematite and goethite as red and yellow decorations, respectively. Black decorations, however, consisted of four main groups including carbon black, magnetite, haematite and jacobsite. This paper represents a successful application of non-invasive spectroscopic methods for identifying pigments on archaeological ceramics.

A “Priest King” at Shahr-i Sokhta?

The paper discusses the published fragment of a statuette made of a buff-grey limestone, recently found on the surface of Shahr-i Sokhta (Sistan, Iran) and currently on exhibit in a showcase of the archaeological Museum of Zahedan (Sistan-Baluchistan, Iran). Most probably, it belongs to a sculptural type well known in some sites of Middle and South Asia dating to the late 3rd-early 2nd millennium BCE - a male character sitting on the right heel, with the left hand on the raised left knee, and a robe leaving bare the left shoulder. Preliminary comments on the cultural, historical and chronological implications of this important find are included.

Lapis Lazuli Bead Making at Shahr-i Sokhta. Interpreting Craft Production in a Urban Community of the 3rd Millennium bc, edited by Massimo Vidale and Alessandra Lazzari

Lapis Lazuli Bead Making at Shahr-i Sokhta. Interpreting Craft Production in a Urban Community of the 3rd Millennium bc, edited by Massimo Vidale and Alessandra Lazzari

Regional and long-distance exchange of an emblematic ‘prestige’ ceramic in the Indo-Iranian Borderlands. Results of Neutron Activation Analysis

This article investigates the production and distribution of a high quality ceramic typical of the Indo-Iranian Borderlands ca 3000 BC, a ceramic we term here Late Shahi-Tump ware, often included under the generic label Emir Grey ware. Recorded at sites located hundreds of kilometers distant on the Southeastern Iranian Plateau, including Shahr-i Sokhta, Tepe Yahya, and Shahi-Tump, this ceramic is one of the few data points we have to approach the various communities settled in this area during the Early Bronze Age and to clarify the nature of their relationships. Through chemical composition analysis of the most relevant assemblages, using Instrumental Neutron Activation, we hoped to gain insights as to whether and how these ceramics circulated across the Southeastern Iranian Plateau. In the end, this analysis reveals patterns of distribution at the intraregional level in Southwestern Pakistan and a vast sphere of ceramic exchange at the interregional level. These results reinforce the picture of the Indo-Iranian Borderlands as a dynamic place for production and trade of high quality ceramics, a characteristic that continued and intensified during the 3rd millennium BC.

Cosmetics and Cosmetology at Shahr-I Sokhta

A set of X-rays Diffraction and SEM investigations of the contents of thirteen stone flagons at Shahr-i Sokhta (Sistan, Iran, third millennium BC) demonstrates that they held cosmetic substances. A surprisingly varied list of mixtures of mineral phases (natural and possibly synthetic) indicates the use of green, blue, and white pigments. After discussing the typology of the stone flagons, their geographical distribution and morphological changes in time, we show how cosmetic ingredients were moved and mixed from a specific type of elongated vial to miniature vessels and/or finally, before application, to a stone perforated cap, previously interpreted as a “lid” or “spindle whorl”. Bird feathers were probably drawn through these perforated caps holding cosmetic powders to apply the substances to the skin. The economic implications of the cosmetology of Shahr-i Sokhta are briefly outlined in the Conclusions.

Preliminary surface analyses by ESEM–EDS of calcite bowls from Shahr-i Sokhta (Sistan, Iran, ca. 3200–1800 BCE): Results and possible interpretations

Shahr-i Sokhta (eastern Iran) developed a flourishing stone industry in the 3rd millennium BCE, which was the object of previous studies by scholars with regard to the tools and techniques involved in the manufacturing processes. Some issues, however, have been left open concerning the technology implemented for the manufacture of calcite bowls at Shahr-i Sokhta. For this study, we have carried out non-destructive analyses by using ESEM (Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope) equipped with an EDS (Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer) to target the inner surfaces of 5 samples of calcite bowls coming from this site and kept in the collection of the National Museum of Oriental Arts in Rome. This technique has been applied to these bowls for the first time. The aim was to test some of the existing hypothesises about calcite bowl manufacture at Shahr-i Sokhta, with particular regard to the drilling process, and produce new evidence that can help understand the technology involved in their production. The results consist in morphological and compositional characterisations of the inner surfaces of the samples. The possibility that these characterizations are tool marks and manufacturing residues has been evaluated, though other interpretations have also been taken into account following surface analyses on archaeological materials. In particular, results of the ESEM morphological characterizations have documented circular marks that may be interpreted as drilling marks left by irregular rotary movements. Moreover, the elemental analyses by EDS have given clues to the debate about the possible use of sandy materials as abrasives and copper tools for their manufacture. It is hoped that these preliminary results will stimulate new research in the field of study on calcite bowl manufacture, thus contributing to the broader issues concerning the relationship between stoneworking techniques, craft production organization and the emergence of the Shahr-i Sokhta proto-urban society.

Shahr-I Sokhta and its Masonry Walls from Structural and Seismicity Standpoint

Abstract Shahr-I Sokhta, Burned City, located in the south of Zabol, Sistan where founded circa 3200 BCE and some part of the city was burnt. Marvelous finds such as the world's earliest known artificial eyeball, the first animation in the world, the oldest known backgammon, with its dice and so forth all in this city. Their expertise was merely not in handicrafts. In this work provided evidences which Burned City’s walls are highly resistance against seismic loads and has engineering aspects, a wall was simulated by a finite element software and seismically considerations was approve the walls minimal deformation even after circa five thousand years.

Compositional Analysis of the Pottery Shards of Shahr-I Sokhta, South Eastern Iran

The aim of this study is to determine whether pottery shards from Shah-I Sokhta especially the shards with red and gray in color are locally made or imported from elsewhere. Shah-I Sokhta is one of the most ancient settlement in Iranian Sistan and has been occupied by human since more than 5000 years ago. Based on archaeological excavations, the most ancient layer, considered as Period I, shows southern Turkmenian influences evidenced by clay figurines and pottery vessels similar to those of Namazga III period. The second period of occupation is dated between 2800 and 2500 BC. The first half of period III, ca. 2500-2200 BC, seems to be an continuation of the social changes of period II, but during the second part of period III signs of social/economical decline and environmental changes began to appear, leading to a great reduction of surface of the site in period IV (2200-1800 BC). By the end of period IV Shahr-I Sokhta was completely abandoned. Archaeological excavations also unearth thousand of pottery shards which are buff, grey and red in color which are mostly shards from broken bowls, jars, beakers and dishes. Archaeologists believe that most of the buff pottery shards are locally made; hence to determine whether this hypothesis is true, a scientific analysis was done to determine the chemical compositions of the pottery shards. The technique involved X-Rays Fluorescence (XRF) equipment which was applied to determine the major and trace elements of the pottery shards. The results shows that most of the pottery shards are in the same group and this strongly suggest that they are local products. Additionally, based on the major and trace elements, it can be suggested that sample 18259-9, 18265-10, 18266-13, 18271-15 and 18273-4 are not locally made and the surface of these potteries are buff and red in color.