Shade Cultivation Research Articles

Soil physical, chemical and biological properties in Conilon coffee intercropping systems

ABSTRACT Shaded coffee systems may offer a series of benefits, however, studies on shaded cultivation of Conilon coffee crops are still scarce in the literature. This study aimed to evaluate the soil physical, chemical, and biological properties of two Conilon coffee intercropping systems from southeastern Brazil. Two commercial coffee crops – one shaded by macadamia trees and the other by green dwarf coconut trees – were evaluated according to three treatments: coffee plants in the inter-row of the tree species; coffee plants in the same row of the trees; and unshaded coffee. The experimental design was a completely randomized with four replicates. Coffee plants intercropped with macadamia trees, both intra- and inter-row, resulted in less soil compaction than unshaded systems. As for intercropping with green dwarf coconut trees, the unshaded system presented lower soil resistance to penetration. Differences in physical properties between treatments allow no inferences about intercropping systems influence on green coconut trees. Intercropped coffee improves soil chemical properties, resulting in greater soil fertility than unshaded systems, and showed greater soil organisms. These findings indicate that Conilon coffee-macadamia intercropped with tree species represents a promising alternative for sustainable soil management.

The coffee-mango association promotes favorable soil conditions for better-nourished and higher-yielding plants

In several countries, coffee is traditionally grown under the shade of large trees; however, the non-shade surface system has increased. Shade cultivation system benefits the soil, helps crops adaption to climate change, and reduces vulnerability. This study aimed to compare the physical, chemical, and biological soil features under coffee production systems: coffee-mango, coffee-banana, and full-sun coffee; to identify the nutritional variation of coffee plants in the three cultivation systems, and to establish recommendations for coffee production associated with other crops. Soil properties varied between the shaded and full-sun systems. The shade coffee systems had different pH, cation exchange capacity, potassium, and nitrogen concentrations, organic matter, carbon-, nitrogen-microbial biomass, and the number of earthworms from the full-sun coffee system. The coffee-mango association showed specific soil (exchangeable calcium, moisture, soil porosity, and aggregate stability index), foliar (calcium, potassium, nitrogen, iron, and chlorophyll a and b concentrations), and grain features (gold coffee yield, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorous concentrations) that make distinct from the other two coffee systems. The coffee-mango system positively influenced soil traits, nutrient concentration in leaves, production, yield, and nutritional status of the fruit. The production of coffee under full-sun adversely affects the soil and the coffee’s nutrition and yield. Therefore, the production of coffee should be in the traditional manner under shade trees. These results apply to coffee production under shade systems in other countries with similar agroecological conditions and to soil conservation as a pertinent vision under global climate change.

Growth of Coffee Cultivation, Consumption & Production in India – An Overview

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to learn about how in India coffee producers as well as how the country is gaining international recognition, as well as how India's coffee growing integration with the global process has caused major difficulties that arise in the coffee industry's agricultural sector in India and to know how suitable areas for coffee cultivation. To comprehend major issues confronting coffee-producing countries, and the situation is steadily deteriorating. To be aware, coffee is thought to have been cultivated for the longest time outside of the world in India. Objective: The focus of this article is to understand the background of how coffee was discovered and brought to India. Additionally, to understand the many varieties and areas of India that produce coffee utilizing PESTEL analysis Design/Methodology/Approach: The information for the study was obtained from secondary sources like google, journal papers, new stories, literature, reports, magazines and books. Findings: Coffee species that are important for breeding or production are described. Soil preparation, seedling production, harvesting, and post-harvest processing are all discussed as important aspects of coffee cultivation. The most critical technological aspects of this crop are compared, including full sun vs. shaded cultivation systems, arabica vs. Robusta coffee production, and low vs. high technological input. Research limitations/implications: There are few sources for references, few topics are not highlighted, and most of the information is obsolete, thus gathering relevant data was difficult. Originality/Value: This research is unique in that it aims to trace the past of India's coffee industries as well as the various coffee laws implemented as an outcome of coffee growers. Paper type: A Research Case study paper on Growth of Coffee Cultivation on Plantation in India an overview.

Alleviation of high light stress in shade-treated tea leaves by acclimation to light before shade removal.

Shade cultivation of tea plants (Camellia sinensis L.) is employed for the production of high-quality green tea which increases the content of chlorophylls and free amino acids, including theanine. However, shaded tea plants suffer from photooxidative stress caused by sudden exposure to high light (HL) when the shade is removed. In this study, we tried to acclimatize shaded tea plants to light prior to shade removal to alleviate HL-induced stress. Acclimated tea plants showed milder photoinhibition in response to HL exposure than the shaded plants without acclimation. Moreover, there were no large differences in the total chlorophylls and free amino acids (including theanine) content between acclimated and non-acclimated plants. These results indicate that acclimation of shaded tea plants can alleviate subsequent HL stress without causing large changes in the content of chemical components associated with tea quality.

Changes in Yield, Quality, and Morphology of Three Grafted Cut Roses Grown in a Greenhouse Year-Round

Cut roses are grown throughout the four distinct seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter in Korea. Especially in the very hot or cold seasons of summer or winter, the temperature and light environments inside a greenhouse cause abiotic stress on the growth of horticultural crops. In a greenhouse where shade cultivation is performed in summer, the temperature is high and the light intensity is low, whereas in winter when shade cultivation is not performed, both temperature and light intensity are low. This experiment investigated the year-round growth and yield changes of cut roses grafted onto three rootstocks. The root activity of rootstocks was generally higher than that of the scion. The stomata of the grafted cut roses showed morphological changes according to the seasons. Compared with the scion, the stomata of grafted cut roses became smaller and their number increased in summer, whereas only the stomata size increased in winter. The grafted cut roses had characteristics of high photosynthetic efficiency such as photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate from rootstocks under harsh environmental conditions including temperature and light intensity, and thus the photosynthetic efficiency was higher than that of the scion. There was no significant change in the yield of grafted cut roses, but flower quality parameters such as the stem height, stem thickness, and weight of grafted cut roses were improved according to the rootstocks compared with those of the scion. In particular, in cut roses grafted with R. multiflora cv. Natal Briar and Rosa indica ‘Major’ rootstocks, the weight increased as the stem lengthened and thickened in spring, autumn, and winter. Therefore, grafting is effective in improving the quality of cut roses grown under abiotic stress caused by harsh temperature and light intensity conditions during winter.

Optimizing Shade Cultivation Method and Irrigation Amount to Improve Photosynthetic Characteristics, Bean Yield, and Quality of Coffee in a Subtropical Monsoon Climate.

Reasonable water and light management technology can improve economic benefits, coffee yield, and quality. We used cluster analysis and principal component analysis to evaluate and optimize the water and light management technology with high coffee yield, quality, and economic benefits in a subtropical monsoon climate region of China. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with two factors (3 irrigation levels × 4 shade cultivation treatments) replicated four times during 2016–2017. The irrigation levels consisted of full irrigation (FI) and two deficit irrigations (DIL: 75% FI, DIS: 50% FI). The shade cultivation treatments consisted of no shade cultivation (S0) and three shade cultivation modes (SL: intercropping with four lines of coffee and one line of banana; SM: intercropping with three lines of coffee and one line of banana; SS: intercropping with two lines of coffee and one line of banana). The results showed that the effects of irrigation level and shade cultivation mode on growth, crop yield, most of the photosynthetic characteristics, and nutritional quality were significant (p < 0.05). Regression analysis showed that the leaf radiation use efficiency (RUE) showed a significant negative exponential relation or logistic-curve variation with photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). The bean yield increased with an increase of the shade degree when water was seriously deficient, whereas it first increased and then decreased with an increase of the shade degree under FI and DIL. Based on both cluster analysis and principal component analysis, the FISS treatment resulted in the highest comprehensive quality of coffee, followed by the FISM treatment; the DISS0 treatment obtained the lowest quality. Compared with the FIS0 treatment, the FISM treatment increased the 2-year average bean yield and net income by 15.0 and 28.5%, respectively, whereas the FISS treatment decreased these by 17.8 and 8.7%, respectively. To summarize, FISS treatment significantly improved the nutritional quality of coffee, and FISM treatment significantly increased the dry bean yield and economic benefits of coffee. The results of the study could provide a theoretical basis for water-saving irrigation and shade cultivation management of coffee in a subtropical monsoon climate region of China.

Direct sunlight and partial shading alter the quality, quantity, biochemical activities of Kaempferia parviflora Wall., ex Baker rhizome essential oil: A high industrially important species

Kaempferia parviflora Wall., ex Baker is a perennial plant with numerous medicinal properties. Different light intensity is known to produce variable results in crops. Keeping in view the importance of the plant, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of direct and partial sunlight on K. parviflora essential oil yield, chemical profile as well as biological activities. For direct sunlight conditions K. parviflora were planted in an open field and for partial shade (75% sunlight) under a green polyethylene agro shade net during the year 2020. The essential oils extracted by hydrodistillation were chemically profiled by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) which revealed linalool as the major compound in both K. parviflora essential oil under shade cultivation (KPEOSH) and K. parviflora essential oil under direct sunlight cultivation (KPEOS) with significantly higher linalool content in KPEOSH (43.35%). The essential oil yield of KPEOSH (0.92% w/w) was found to be higher than KPEOS (0.76% w/w). The essential oils were analyzed for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-cholinesterase, tyrosinase, anti-diabetic, and genotoxicity properties. Both the KPEOSH and KPEOS exhibited superior activities than the standards for the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cholinesterase, tyrosinase, and antidiabetic properties. However, both the essential oils possessed inferior antibacterial and weak antifungal properties. Considering the genotoxicity assay, both the essential oils were found to be non-toxic. The essential oils can be analyzed for further pharmaceutical applications considering their higher biological activity as compared with standards. The present investigation suggested that partial shade conditions give higher essential oil yield than open field conditions.

Brevipalpus mites associated with coffee plants (Coffea arabica and C. canephora) in Chiapas, Mexico.

Tenuipalpid mites of the genus Brevipalpus are of significant economic and quarantine importance in agriculture. They can damage and vector phytopathogenic viruses in coffee plantations and other crops. In this study, we focused on: identification of the Brevipalpus species, assessment of the spread of Brevipalpus-associated viruses (CoRSV, CiLV-N, CiLVC and CiLVC2), and mite population fluctuations over the course of 1year. The study was conducted in coffee plantations in Soconusco, a coffee-producing region in Chiapas, Mexico. The collected mites of the Brevipalpus phoenicis sensu lato species complex (635) were identified as Brevipalpus papayensis (80.2%) and B. yothersi (19.8%) based on morphological and molecular characteristics. Their population abundance was low and there were no indications for virosis. The highest mite abundance was recorded in August-September and the lowest in February-March. An interaction was observed between mite abundance and coffee species in open-growth and shaded cultivation at various altitudes. Brevipalpus papayensis was most abundant in Coffea arabica var. Bourbon, in shaded (80%) growing conditions at an altitude of 1300m above sea level. In C. canephora (in open-growth cultivation conditions at low altitude), B. yothersi was more abundant than in C. arabica, and as abundant as B. papayensis. We are of the opinion that, at this moment, B. papayensis and B. yothersi do not present risks to the production of coffee for the studied plantations. However, as the coffee-producing regions of Mexico are ecologically diverse, it will be important to continue examining the status of Brevipalpus mite populations in other regions in Mexico.

Phenotypic Markers Reflecting the Status of Overstressed Tea Plants Subjected to Repeated Shade Cultivation.

Shade cultivation is a traditional Japanese tea cultivation method in which the shoot buds are shaded for several weeks. This technique is increasingly used for green tea production because it produces tea of high quality (as indicated by umami and nutritional content) and commands high prices. However, given that shaded tea plants are grown under low-light stress, concerns exist regarding damage to tea plants caused by repeated shade cultivation. To understand basic physiological responses and accumulative changes in photosynthetic ability and metabolites of tea plants subjected to repeated shading, we performed a pot experiment on immature tea plants grown in a growth chamber subjected to repeated shading treatments. The results demonstrated that shade cultivation caused a decrease in non-structural carbohydrate content and an increase of several degrees in leaf surface temperature, reflecting transpiration through the leaf stomata, as a result of a reduction in photosynthetic ability. An increase of several degrees in canopy temperature and a reduction in photosynthetic ability in the field in the mid-summer season was also observed in overstressed tea plants subjected to repeated shading. Metabolomic analysis identified several candidate biomarkers, such as citrulline and glycine betaine, that were significantly changed in individuals affected by shade cultivation. These physiological changes may be an indicator of the stress status of tea plants grown under repeated shade cultivation.

Photochemistry and proteomics of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) under drought and shading

Drought has become an increasingly serious ecological problem that limits crop production. However, little is known about the response of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) to drought and shading, especially with respect to photosynthetic electron transport. Here, differential proteomics was used to study the response of ginger to four experimental treatments: control, drought, 50% shading, and the combination of 50% shading and drought. Proteomic analysis suggested that ginger increased cyclic electron flow under drought stress by enhancing the expression of proteins related to photosystem I and cytochrome b6f. Shading significantly increased the expression of proteins related to the light harvesting complex, even under drought stress. In addition, shading increased the expression of proteins related to the oxygen evolution complex, plastocyanin, and ferredoxin–NADP+ reductase (FNR), thereby enhancing the efficiency of photosynthetic electron utilization. The shading and drought combination treatment appeared to enhance ginger's drought tolerance by reducing the expression of FNR and enhancing cyclic electron flow. Photosynthetic and fluorescence parameters showed that drought stress caused non-stomatal limitation of photosynthesis in ginger leaves. Drought stress also significantly reduced the quantum efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm), the non-cyclic electron transfer efficiency of photosystem II (ϕPSII), and photochemical quenching (qP), while simultaneously increasing nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ). The addition of shading improved photosynthetic efficiency under drought. These results provide important baseline information on the photosynthetic mechanisms by which ginger responds to drought and shading. In addition, they provide a theoretical basis for the study of shade cultivation during the arid season.

Effect of Oyster Shell Supplementation to the Culture Medium on Anthocyanin Content in the Spathe of Anthurium andraeanum Lind.

Anthurium andraeanum Lind. is an economically important potted and fresh-cut flower species. However, reduced anthocyanin content under shaded cultivation impacts the color of the spathe, which has negative implications for the marketability of A. andraeanum. Thus, the present study evaluates the use of oyster shell supplementation to the cultivation medium for improving anthocyanin content. Appropriate calcium (Ca) can improve the activity of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), and PAL activity is positively correlated with anthocyanin content; nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) nutrients are closely related to anthocyanin synthesis. N and P nutrients and Ca can alleviate the color symptoms of A. andraeanum when anthocyanin content decreases under weak light (under 220 μmol·m−2·s−1). Microdissolution of calcium carbonate, the main component of oyster shell, can provide better exogenous Ca and adsorb slow-release N and P. Selecting appropriate oyster shell fragments will be the key to A. andraeanum experimental cultivation under low light conditions. Using regression models and response surface methodology (RSM), the relationships between oyster shell fragments and anthocyanin content are promulgated. The main findings indicated that the Ca released from 286-mg oyster shell fragments at pH 5.5 significantly increased the activity of PAL in the pedicel under weak light within 8 hours. At pH 5.9, 375-mg oyster shell fragments could significantly adsorb N and P nutrients within 4 to 14 hours. In conclusion, 286 to 375 mg oyster shell fragments at pH 5.5 to 5.9 could stabilize slow-release fertilizer source and significantly increase anthocyanin content in A. andraeanum spathe.

Estimation of the age of establishment of the traditional shaded cultivation system in a tea plantation in Uji, Kyoto, Japan using soil analysis and 14C dating

Estimation of the age of establishment of the traditional shaded cultivation system in a tea plantation in Uji, Kyoto, Japan using soil analysis and ¹⁴C dating

Effects of deficit irrigation on water-radiation use and yield of Coffea arabica under different shade cultivation modes in dry-hot region

The yield and quality of Coffea arabica cannot be guaranteed due to irrational irrigation and light management in dry-hot region. To investigate the best coupling mode of irrigation and shade cultivation of C. arabica in dry-hot region, a field experiment was carried out with different irrigation levels and shade cultivation modes. Three levels of irrigation, i.e., full irrigation, light deficit irrigation and severe deficit irrigation, and four modes of shade cultivation, i.e., no shade cultivation (C. arabica monoculture), light shade cultivation (intercropping of four-line C. arabica and a line banana), moderate shade cultivation (intercropping of three-line C. arabica and a line banana) and severe shade cultivation (intercropping of two-line C. arabica and a line banana) were designed to examine the effects of deficit irrigation on growth, photosynthetic characteristics of lea-ves, water-radiation use and yield of C. arabica under the shade of banana trees. The results showed that net photosynthesis rate (Pn), transpiration rate (Tr), stomatal conductance (gs), leaf water use efficiency (LWUE), leaf radiation use efficiency (LRUE) increased with the increases of irrigation amount, while the intercellular CO2 concentration (Ci) decreased with the increases of irrigation amount. Compared with full irrigation, light deficit irrigation decreased dry bean yield by 9.4%, severe deficit irrigation decreased dry bean yield and water use efficiency (WUE) by 36.7% and 16.9%, respectively. Pn, Tr, gs, LWUE first increased and then decreased with the increases of shading degree, with moderate shade cultivation having the maximum increment. Compared with no shade cultivation, light shade cultivation increased dry bean yield and WUE by 13.0% and 12.9%, respectively; moderate shade cultivation increased dry bean yield and WUE by 23.1% and 23.4%, respectively. The dry bean yield, WUE, volume and fresh mass of 100-bean of C. arabica increased in different degrees with the increases of irrigation amount and shading degree, with the largest enhancement of dry bean yield and WUE occurring in full irrigation under moderate shade cultivation. Soil water content in the same soil depth decreased with the increases of shading degree. Soil water content in the same place increased first and then decreased with the increases of soil la-yer depth in 0-50 cm soil layer. Results of regression analysis showed that LRUE had a significantly negative exponential relation or Logistic-curve variation with photosynthetically active radiation. Therefore, the suitable combination of irrigation treatment and banana shade cultivation mode for C. arabica was full irrigation and moderate shade cultivation, considering the comprehensive benefit of superior quality and high production and high efficiency water-radiation use.

A comparative study of ant diversity under three coverages in a Neotropical coffee landscape

The coffee cultivation has displaced natural vegetation and its associated biological diversity. The present study describes the diversity of ground-dwelling ants on eight plantations where coffee is grown in the shade (SHD), eight plantations where coffee is grown under unshaded coffee (SUN) and four patches of forest (FOS) in a coffee-growing region of Colombia. The research was conducted in transects composed of 12 sampling stations, each of which employed active collection, pitfall traps and litter sifting. Nine habitat variables were analyzed to characterize each site, and these values were related to the diversity of ants and functional groups. A total of 92 morphospecies were collected. Myrmicinae was the subfamily with the highest representation. The sample coverage presented a deficit of less than 5 %. The rank abundance curves exhibited differences in the ant assemblages. The ant communities found in the forest exhibited greater diversity and a larger number of exclusive species than the communities found in locations of other land uses; the SHD and SUN communities were characterized by 80.3 % and 62.3 %, respectively, of the diversity found in the forest communities. The functional similarity index as adapted for guilds by Sørensen reveals a high degree of similarity in the structure of their ant communities, but less so in their composition.The shaded coffee plantations have a richer and more equitable ant fauna than the exposed coffee plantations, reinforcing the idea that shade cultivation favors the establishment of ant fauna and, consequently, ecological functionality.

Microclimate and development of Coffea canephora cv. Conilon under different shading levels promoted by Australian cedar (Toona ciliata M. Roem. var. Australis)

Coffee growers are searching for more sustainable production systems. Shaded cultivation is presented as a management option to attenuate coffee environmental stresses. This work aims at to evaluate the microclimate and coffee plant (Coffea canephora cv. Conilon Clone 02) development under different shading levels promoted by the intercropping with Australian cedar (Toona ciliata M. Roem. var. Australis) or under unshaded conditions. Australian cedar and Conilon coffee were planted in 15 × 2m and 3 x 1.2 m spacing, respectively, resulting in five rows of coffee to one row of Australian cedar. The closer the coffee rows were in relation to the Australian cedar trees the higher shade level was obtained. Climatic variables (temperature, irradiance and relative humidity) and leaf areas were evaluated over four seasons, and the internode lengths of plagiotropic and orthotropic branches were evaluated monthly. The 2013yield was also measured. There was a decrease in both the irradiance and temperature and an increase in the relative humidity at all times under shaded cultivation (closer to the Australian cedar row). The highest growth of plagiotropic and orthotropic branches and leaf expansion were found under shaded cultivation; however, the number of nodes per branch and the yields were similar among treatments. Growing Conilon coffee intercropped with Australian cedar showed a good yield potential.

Fluxes of greenhouse gases from Andosols under coffee in monoculture or shaded by Inga densiflora in Costa Rica

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of N fertilization and the presence of N2 fixing leguminous trees on soil fluxes of greenhouse gases. For a one year period, we measured soil fluxes of nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), related soil parameters (temperature, water-filled pore space, mineral nitrogen content, N mineralization potential) and litterfall in two highly fertilized (250 kg N ha−1 year−1) coffee cultivation: a monoculture (CM) and a culture shaded by the N2 fixing legume species Inga densiflora (CIn). Nitrogen fertilizer addition significantly influenced N2O emissions with 84% of the annual N2O emitted during the post fertilization periods, and temporarily increased soil respiration and decreased CH4 uptakes. The higher annual N2O emissions from the shaded plantation (5.8 ± 0.3 kg N ha−1 year−1) when compared to that from the monoculture (4.3 ± 0.1 kg N ha−1 year−1) was related to the higher N input through litterfall (246 ± 16 kg N ha−1 year−1) and higher potential soil N mineralization rate (3.7 ± 0.2 mg N kg−1 d.w. d−1) in the shaded cultivation when compared to the monoculture (153 ± 6.8 kg N ha−1 year−1 and 2.2 ± 0.2 mg N kg−1 d.w. d−1). This confirms that the presence of N2 fixing shade trees can increase N2O emissions. Annual CO2 and CH4 fluxes of both systems were similar (8.4 ± 2.6 and 7.5 ± 2.3 t C-CO2 ha−1 year−1, −1.1 ± 1.5 and 3.3 ± 1.1 kg C-CH4 ha−1 year−1, respectively in the CIn and CM plantations) but, unexpectedly increased during the dry season.