Sexually Transmitted Disease Patients Research Articles

Women education in the Soviet prophylactoria and the care homes for sexually transmitted disease patients in the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany.

In the 1920s, so-called prophylactoria were established in the USSR. In these institutions, sex workers with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) were treated. After the end of World War II, care homes for patients with STDs were established in the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany (SOZ). These institutions were also intended to treat people suffering from STDs. This article compares these two types of medical institutions. Sources from the State Archive of the Russian Federation in Moscow, the German Federal Archives in Berlin and the City Archive Zwickau were used. The analysed sources were evaluated by using the historical-critical method. The prophylactoria were novel institutions that combined education and medical treatment of people with STDs. Similar strategies were followed in the care homes for STD patients. In both institutions, the sick persons had to follow a regular daily routine and work every day. The political indoctrination served to educate 'socialist personalities'. Nevertheless, various differences can be found between the facilities: the length of stay was different. The women in Soviet prophylactoria were cared for there for up to 2 years. However, the standard duration of stay in the care homes for STD patients was 3-6 months. The prophylactoria had a long-term programme not only to treat sick women but also to reeducate them. The aim was to enlighten and integrate them into the new Soviet society. The care homes for STD patients had a short-term programme of combating venereal diseases. Their main goal was to treat patients with STDs as quickly as possible, while education was an additional measure. Whether both institutions were successful in educating and treating these patients can hardly be assessed from today's perspective.

Pay-it-forward gonorrhea and chlamydia testing among men who have sex with men and male STD patients in China: the PIONEER pragmatic, cluster randomized controlled trial protocol

BackgroundGonorrhea and chlamydia are the most common sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among men who have sex with men (MSM) in China. Previous studies have shown pay-it-forward (PIF) interventions to be associated with a substantial increase in gonorrhea and chlamydia test uptake compared to standard-of-care. We propose a 'pay-it-forward' gonorrhea and chlamydia testing randomized controlled trial (PIONEER). The trial would evaluate the effectiveness of two pay-it-forward strategies in promoting testing uptake compared to the standard of care (in which men pay for their tests out-of-pocket) among MSM and male STD patients in China.MethodsPIONEER will be a three-armed, pragmatic cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT), conducted across 12 clinics (six MSM-led and six public STD clinics) to compare the effectiveness of three implementation strategies. Each facility will be randomized to a standard pay-it-forward intervention of gonorrhea/ chlamydia testing with minimal encouragement for testing, a community-engaged pay-it-forward arm, or a control arm where men pay for their tests out-of-pockets. The primary outcome will be dual gonorrhea/chlamydia test uptake. Secondary outcomes will include syphilis testing, amount donated in pay-it-forward, number of positive gonorrhea and chlamydia tests, and measures of antimicrobial resistance. A sequential transformative mixed methods design will be used to evaluate the implementation process in type 2 effectiveness-implementation hybrid design. Data sources will include survey on acceptability, and feelings and attitudes towards the interventions among participants; testing and treatment uptake data from clinic records, WeChat records, and qualitative data to gain insights into men's perceptions and attitudes towards the pay-it-forward, mechanisms driving uptake, and donating behaviors. Implementers and organizers will be interviewed about fidelity and adherence to protocol, sustainability of pay-it-forward intervention, and barriers and facilitators of implementing the intervention.DiscussionPIONEER will substantially increase gonorrhea/chlamydia testing among MSM in China, providing an innovative and new financial mechanism to sustain STD screening among sexual minorities in low- and middle-income countries. This study will answer compelling scientific questions about how best to implement pay-it-forward and the individual and organizational characteristics that moderate it.Trial registration: The study with identification number NCT05723263 has been registered on clinicaltrials.gov/.

Ethical Dilemmas in the Dermatology Outpatient Department in China.

Recently, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) remain a sensitive issue within generally healthy environments. Different countries have developed various principle-based approaches to tackle the ethical issues surrounding STDs. Due to lacking any relevant laws or code of conducts to deal with the ethical issue, it has become a notable ethical problem in China. Ethical principles involve a sensitive clinical problem, this paper intends to reflect upon and discuss how nurses as moral agents deal with ethical dilemmas within Chinese culture and provided some orientations for further study. This paper briefly presented the nurses' ethical dilemma related to the issue of confidentiality and disclosure of STD patients' information via a case scenario. Based on Chinese cultural tradition, we focused on how to solve this situation as a clinical nurse with ethical principles and philosophical theories. The process of discussion provided eight steps by the Corey et al model to solve the ethical dilemma. The ability to deal with ethical dilemmas is a necessary quality for nurses. On the one hand, nurses should respect patients' autonomy and contribute positively to the relationship between confidentiality and the nurse-patient therapeutic relationship. On the other hand, nurses should combine with the current situation and make a targeted decision where necessary. Of course, professional code supported by related policies is necessary.

Misdiagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Hong Kong Outpatient Private Healthcare

Background and objective: Early and accurate diagnosis is one of the critical requirements for successful management of all diseases. Yet, delayed diagnosis and misdiagnosis remain as vital problems, consequently impose adverse effects on patient treatment. Sexually transmitted disease (STD) is one of the most common infectious diseases, and more than one million of STD cases are acquired every day globally. Misdiagnosis of STD inevitably exists, therefore should not be overlooked. Being a medical diagnostic laboratory providing various STDs diagnosing service in Hong Kong, we aimed to determine the misdiagnosis rate of STDs and investigate the possible underlying cause. Methods: Specimens were collected for STD diagnosis from multiple clinics during 1 June 2021 to 20 October 2021 from different clinics and hospitals were included in the study. DNA extraction was performed using magnetic bead based method; then the extracted DNA was tested using the DiagCor GenoFlowTM STD Array kit to detect the existence of any targeted pathogens. Results: 1459 specimens were collected and included during the designated time period, with 643 specimens found to be positive with at least one targeted STD pathogen. 494 of these were found to be aligned with test ordered by physicians, and the remaining 149 positive cases had at least one pathogen detected but not requested to be tested by the physicians resulting in misdiagnosis. The overall misdiagnosis rate was determined to be 23.2% (149/643), with high frequency of misdiagnosis occurred to tests ordered for one to three pathogens detection. Also, Ureaplasma urealyticum and/or Ureaplasma parvum (UU/UP) was the commonest pathogen detected in this study. Conclusion: The findings suggested incorrect test selection made by physicians was one of the major reasons of STDs misdiagnosis in outpatient settings. To reduce diagnostic errors in STD diagnosis, physicians are encouraged to select and request test that allow detection of multiple pathogens, as co-infection of multiple pathogens in STD patients is commonly observed. The correct selection of test would not only benefit the patient, but also the public health.

The perceptions of sexuality and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among adolescent STD patients: A qualitative study

PurposeTo explore the causes and outcomes of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in the adolescent STD patients (ASPs) in relation to their access to and interpretation of sexual and STD knowledge, their attitudes towards premarital sex, and their feelings and thoughts after getting STDs. MethodsA qualitative study was conducted to interview 16 ASPs (12 males, 4 females) using convenience sampling. One-on-one, semi-structured, and confidential interviews were conducted in an outpatient clinic room at a dermatology hospital in Guangzhou, China. Data were analysed via thematic analysis with NVivo 12 software. ResultsFour main themes were derived from the data: sex education before getting STDs, cognition of the definition of STDs and their transmission, attitude towards premarital sex, and impact of infection with STDs. Most of the participants had very limited information about sexuality from their families or schools, lacked STD knowledge, and considered premarital sex as normal or common. Infection with STDs had a negative influence on all the participants, especially on female participants, as they felt ashamed and some even did not want to get married in the future. ConclusionLimited sex education, lack of sexual knowledge, and an open attitude towards premarital sex led to STDs among adolescents. This study highlights the importance of providing effective sex education. In addition, specific and targeted health guidance and suggestions should be provided to ASPs to help them deal with STDs and the life experience with STDs objectively and correctly.

The trend of STD in COVID times- A retrospective hospital-based study from Northeast India

Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are considered to be a burden for mankind since long. Different studies showed variation in epidemiology of STD. Our study is targeted towards unveiling the prevalence of STD during covid times. : To study the change of prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases during covid times.: A retrospective study of all patients, who attended the outpatient department (OPD) of Dermatology, Venerology and Leprosy (DVL) of Silchar Medical College and Hospital, Assam, India was done. All the follow-up cases and patients who showed no evidence of STD were excluded from the study.: In the study period (2020-21), out of the 10,954 patients who attended the DVL OPD, 90(0.8%) patients had STD, whereas, in the year (2019-20), total of 57,275 patients attended the clinic, among which 272(0.5%) patients had STD. STD was more among males than females, showing a male: female ratio of 1.9:1 in 2020-2021 as compared to 1.5:1 in 2019 to 2020. Some results were similar in both the study period; like the mean age group was 36 years, most females were housewives and males were shopkeepers and majority of the patients with STD were married. In our study from 2020-21, Herpes genitalis with 29 cases (32.2%) was the most common STD, followed by syphilis and urethral discharge with 17 (18.8%) cases each. Vaginal discharge with 11(12.2%) cases, genital warts with 7(7.7%) cases, GUD-non-herpetic with 5(5.5%) cases and balanoposthitis with 4(4.4%) cases were other STDs during the 2020-’21 period. When compared to 2019-20, herpes genitalis was most common with 72(26.4%) cases followed by vaginal discharge with 58(21.4%) cases, syphilis with 43(15.8%) cases, urethral discharge with 58(21.4%) cases, GUD-non herpetic with 26(9.6%) cases, balanoposthitis with 21(7.8%) cases and warts with16(5.8%) cases.Amidst the COVID-19 crisis and lockdown, a decline in the overall number of patients was seen and similar trend was observed among STD patients reporting to our hospital. Among these, the majority had genital ulcer disease of viral origin. Females were most commonly affected and a decline in bacterial STDs was also seen.

Study of prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus in various sexually transmitted diseases patients at tertiary care center

<p class="abstract"><strong>Background:</strong> The presentation and course of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) may be altered by presence of coexisting HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) status. The purpose of the study was to study the prevalence of HIV in 278 cases of STDs.</p><p class="abstract"><strong>Methods:</strong> From September 2018 to December 2021, all STDs presented in dermatology outpatient department of a tertiary care center, were assessed to determine the prevalence of HIV. A thorough history was taken along with proper general and cutaneous examination as per predesigned case record proforma.<strong></strong></p><p class="abstract"><strong>Results:</strong> Prevalence of HIV was observed in 29 (10.43%) out of 278 STD patients, out of which 18 were males and 11 were females with the male:female ratio of 1.63:1. Maximum patients belonged to the age group of 31-40 years (44.72%). Herpes genitalis was the most common STD associated in HIV seropositivity (9.56%).</p><p class="abstract"><strong>Conclusions:</strong> HIV prevalence in STDs has been showing decreasing trends in our study. In view of this, prevention and control of STDs play an important role in efforts to control HIV infection in India. Hence Focusing on this STD and HIV relationship is of vital importance.</p>

Demographic, Behavioral, and Clinical Characteristics of Persons Seeking Care at Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinics - 14 Sites, STD Surveillance Network, United States, 2010-2018.

Demographic, Behavioral, and Clinical Characteristics of Persons Seeking Care at Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinics - 14 Sites, STD Surveillance Network, United States, 2010-2018.

Care seeking interval - an indirect measure of sexually transmitted infections related stigma: a prospective observational study

<p><strong>Background:</strong> Stigma about STDs (sexually transmitted diseases) may influence an individual’s decision to disclose information about his/her sexual behaviour to health care practitioners as well as to their sex partners. This leads to a continued transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STI) and greater probability of adverse sequelae. Thus, care seeking interval may be regarded as an indirect measure of stigma associated with STI. The aim of this study is to assess healthcare-seeking behaviour of patients and the factors associated with its delay.</p><p><strong>Methods:</strong> This was a cross-sectional study conducted over a period of 1 year in STD OP of Government Stanley medical college, Chennai which included all symptomatic STD Patients who came to OP. The data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. The statistical package SPSS (version 16) was used for analysis.</p><p><strong>Results:</strong> The study included 492 males and 517 females who presented with STD related symptoms. Nearly 54% of patients sought care after 7 days of onset of symptoms. In that 52% of patients reported their delay to be due to fear of disclosure about their symptoms, 19% had self treatment, 12% of them expected spontaneous resolution, 8% had lack of awareness about their symptoms and the remaining 9% reported various other causes.</p><p><strong>Conclusions:</strong> Fear of stigmatisation has a positive association with increased care seeking interval in STDs. Addressing concerns about stigma and educating the public about timely heath care could help reduce the complications of STDs among high risk adult population thereby improving the quality of patient’s life.</p>

COVID-19 and dermatology: a comprehensive guide for dermatologists.

Linked articles: COVID‐19 SPECIAL FORUM. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2020; 34: e291–e310.

Changing trends in sexually transmitted diseases during a seven year period- A retrospective study in STD clinic of a tertiary care hospital

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) shows various trends in different parts of the country and constitute a major public health problem for both developing and developed countries. STD`s increases the risk of transmission of Human Immuno Deficiency virus (HIV) infection causing immense need to understand the patterns of STD`s prevailing in the regions of a country for proper planning and implementation of STD control strategies. To know the pattern of STDs and to analyze the changes during a 7 year period among patients attending the STD clinic at the tertiary care centre. A retrospective analysis of data collected from the clinical records of patients attending the STD clinic of a tertiary care hospital, Mysuru over a period of 7 years (from Jan 2010 to Dec 2016). During this 7 years period, a total of 1,98,991 patients attended Skin and STD Department on out-patient basis, among them 2,111(1.06%) were STD patients [1057 males and 1054 females]. Majority were married (89.86%). The most common STD in males was balanoposthitis (32.92%) and in females was vaginal /cervical discharge (28.42%). Among genital ulcer diseases herpes genitalis was most common and increased gradually while Syphillis and Chancroid declined during the study period. Gonococcal urethritis was seen among 4.69% and LGV only in 0.14% (3 cases). HIV seropositivity in the study population was 7.25%.Bacterial STD`s showed a gradual reduction in number while fungal and viral STD`s showed increasing trends.

Analysis of HIV testing status and relevant factors in male sexually transmitted diseases patients in Shandong Province

A survey was conducted to analyze the HIV testing status and related influencing factors of male sexually transmitted diseases(STD) patients attending 18 county-level hospitals in Shandong Province from July 2015 to August 2016. The HIV detection rate of 1 570 subjects was 77.58% (1 218/1 570), and the HIV-antibody positive rate was 0.99% (12/1 218). Compared with general hospitals patients, urinary and anorectal patients, non-sexual patients, and patients with negative attitudes toward HIV testing, patients were more likely to be tested for HIV from specialized hospitals (OR=3.74, 95%CI:2.53-5.54), the skin and venereal section (OR=1.92, 95%CI: 1.31-2.79), the STD group (OR=2.02, 95%CI: 1.34-3.03) and patients with positive attitude (OR=15.20, 95%CI:10.74-21.52).

Survey on attitude to sexually transmitted disease testing among physicians in community health service centers of 20 cities in China

Objective To survey the attitude to sexually transmitted disease (STD) testing among physicians in community health service centers (CHC) of 20 cities in China. Methods A cross-sectional survey using stratified random sample was conducted in September to December 2015, among 1 734 physicians from 158 CHCs in 20 cities of 6 provinces and 2 municipalities. Results The average age of participants was (39.7±10.6) years, the time for present position was (15.8±11.5) years, and 47.0% (799/1 700) were general practitioners (GPs). The survey showed that in the last month, 8.1% (138/1 699) of the physicians contacted with the specific of STD (sex worker, MSM, drug user, etc), and 18.3% (313/1 706) of them managed STD patients or provided services to suspected STD patients; 62.0% (1 048/1 689) of them received the STD-related training previously; 46.5%(784/1 686) thought the lack of training in STD testing as the biggest barrier for carrying out STD testing in CHC. As for the specific populations, 73.4%(1 241/1 692)of physicians thought that it was meaningful, 62.0% (1 043/1 683) of them worried about have difficulty to deal with their STD clinically , and only 5.8% (97/1 683) of them expressed their dislike of specific population . Conclusions Most physicians in CHCs believe that STD testing should be included in the routine tests, and it is feasible to carry out STD testing in CHCs. Lack of training is the main barrier for STD testing, so it is necessary to conduct STD testing related trainings in CHCs. Key words: Sexually transmitted diseases; Community health centre; Attitude of health personnel

Prevalence and factors associated with syphilis in a Reference Center.

The implementation of the rapid test (RT) for syphilis increases access of vulnerable populations to early diagnosis and treatment, impacting the outcomes of infection. We aimed to assess the prevalence of and factors associated with syphilis in a Center for Testing and Counseling (CTC). We conducted a cross-sectional study at a Reference Center for sexually transmitted disease (STD) and acquired immune deficiency syndrome in Londrina, Northern Paraná State, Southern Brazil. Data regarding the 5,509 individuals who underwent RT from June 2012 to December 2014 were collected from patient records and the CTC Information System and served as the basis to check associations of syphilis cases (346) and cases without syphilis (5,163). Nine patients' records were not found. OpenEpi was used to perform a prevalence analysis and determine odds ratios to assess the associations between sociodemographic and behavioral variables (independent variables) and cases of syphilis (dependent variable). An alpha value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. The prevalence of syphilis was 6.3%; higher in males (7.5%) than in females (4.3%, p <0.001). Syphilis was associated with an age of 25-34 years, little education, and single marital status. The main associated behavioral factors were men who have sex with men, drug users, STD patients, and those presenting with an STD in the last year. The use of alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and crack was significantly associated with syphilis. Strategies for prevention and control of syphilis should be intensified, especially in populations identified as most vulnerable.

Cross-sectional study to assess the need to commence opportunistic screening of women for cervical cancer presenting with sexually transmitted disease in Western India.

This study examines the prevalence of suspected cervical cancer (established through the use of visual inspection with Lugol's Iodine - VILI) among outpatients attending Surat Municipal Institute of Medical Education & Research Hospital, India. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 356 patients; 178 with an established sexually transmitted disease (STD) and 178 patients without. Patients with positive results were investigated with cervical biopsy; out of 356 patients, 21.91% patients with STD and 12.35% patients without STD tested positive for VILI respectively (p=.017). The factors found to be significantly associated with a positive VILI test were STD, marital status, oral contraceptive pill use, a complaint of PV bleeding, white discharge on speculum examination (PS) and cervical erosion on PS. On applying multiple logistic regression, STD, age of patient in years, parity, OC pill use, a complaint of PV bleeding and cervical erosion on PS were found to be significant predictors of VILI positivity among the patients. STD patients are 2.5 times more likely to test positive for VILI than patients without STD. In Indian populations comparable to ours, opportunistic screening should be considered in gynaecology outpatient clinics for women presenting with complaints related to STDs.

HIV detection and prevalence among sexullay transmitted diseases clinic patients in seven provinces (Autonomous Region)

To understand the performance of HIV detection, prevalence and related factors in sexually transmitted diseases (STD) clinics and provide evidence for the improvement of HIV test and counsel services. From January 2013 to December 2014, a survey was conducted in 9 sentinel STD clinics in Laoning province and other 6 provinces. Newly diagnosed STD patients were asked to fill out in STD reporting cards and encouraged to receive HIV test and counsel. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify the factors associated with the acceptance of HIV test. Of the 5063 STD cases reported, 2668(52.7%) received the HIV screening test, in which, 63(2.4%) were positive for HIV. Multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that the acceptance of HIV test was associated with the location of STD clinic, patients' original living place, patient' s marital status, type of STD, and reasons for seeking medical care in STD clinic. HIV counsel and test were well accepted by STD patients, and the HIV positive rate was high. More studies are needed to further explore factors that impede the acceptance of HIV counsel and test services in STD clinics.

Perceived stigma among attendees of psychiatric and nonpsychiatric outpatients department in an industrial township: A comparative study.

Introduction and Context:Stigma associated with psychiatric disorders and few somatic disorders such as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), tuberculosis and leprosy, adversely effects treatment seeking behavior, leads to concealment, and poor compliance with treatment. In busy outpatient departments (OPDs), the issue of stigma is likely to be overlooked.Materials and Methods:We carried out a cross-sectional study collecting data on an 8-item stigma scale from patients attending psychiatry and other OPDs of a Tertiary Care Teaching Hospital in an industrial township. Information was collected by face to face interview from 400 patients attending psychiatry OPD and 401 patients attending other OPDs. Validations of the scale were done by face, content, and construct validity. Reliability was appraised by Cronbach's alpha and Guttmann split-half coefficients. Significant differences in answers to the 8-item questionnaire were explored by Chi-square test for individual responses and Kruskal–Wallis test for difference in total stigma score.Results:Patients attending psychiatry OPD consistently gave responses indicating a greater degree of perceived stigma than those attending OPD for somatic disorders. This difference was almost 3–4 times more on most of the items (P < 0.001). Among somatic disorders, stigma was highest (even higher than psychiatric disorders) among STDs, tuberculosis and leprosy patients among these and psychiatric disorders the score was almost 3 times more compared to other somatic disorders (P < 0.001). The scale demonstrated good face, content, and construct validity. Reliability was also very high with Cronbach's alpha coefficient and Guttmann split-half reliability coefficient 0.932 and 0.901 indicating very good internal consistency of the 8-item scale.Conclusion:Stigma was higher among STD patients, tuberculosis, leprosy, and psychiatry patients as compared to patients suffering from somatic disorders. Assessment of stigma among these groups of patients can help in planning management and intervention to deal with stigma. This in turn can improve patient compliance.

Prevalence and associated factors of mental health problems among monogamous Chinese female patients with sexually transmitted diseases in Hong Kong

Sexually transmitted disease (STD) increases risk of HIV infection and has profound psychological consequences. The present study examined the mental health problems (poor emotional well-being, insomnia, probable depression) and their associated factors among monogamous Chinese female STD patients. A total of 537 Chinese female STD patients who self-reported having had only one male sex partner in the last 12 months were recruited from a STD clinic in Hong Kong. They completed a survey including measures of mental health, STD-related history, perceptions, feelings related to STD infection, and perceptions toward condom use. Results showed that 22% had poor emotional well-being, 25.7% had insomnia, and 43% were probable cases of depression. Unemployment, worsened relationship with partners after STD diagnosis, STD history in last three months, finding STD examinations embarrassing, and feelings of helplessness were significant risk factors for poor emotional well-being and insomnia. Also, unemployment, worsened relationships with partners after STD diagnosis, and perceived high chance of STD in the coming six months were significant risk factors for probable depression. Perceived efficacy of condom use for STD prevention was a significant protective factor against poor emotional well-being and probable depression. Findings suggest that interventions are warranted to improve the mental health among this population.

An Epidemiological Study of Mycoplasma genitalium Infections among Males Attending a Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinic in Guangxi, China

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of urethral Mycoplasma genitalium infections among male patients attending a sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic in China and identify risk factors associated with this disease. A total of 423 patients were recruited in Hezhou City, Guangxi Province, China, and each was requested to complete a questionnaire regarding sociological and sexual behaviors. First-void urine samples were collected for M. genitalium analysis by polymerase chain reaction. Of the 406 urine samples collected, 114 were M. genitalium-positive, giving a prevalence rate of 28.1%. Univariate logistic regression analysis showed that M. genitalium infection was associated with younger age, having received at least senior high school education, and single marital status. In both univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses, M. genitalium infection was found to be associated with lack of symptoms for STD in the past year (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 2.839; 95% CI = 1.495-5.392; P = 0.001), no use of condoms with steady partners in the past year (AOR = 2.830; 95% CI = 1.468-5.455; P = 0.002), and having sexual encounters with female sexual workers within the past 3 months (AOR = 2.955; 95% CI = 1.637-5.336; P < 0.0003). The observed high rate of M. genitalium infection among male STD patients in Hezhou City indicates an M. genitalium epidemic in the study population; thus, the national surveillance program and clinical health providers in China should more closely monitor this disease.

P2.191 DC-SIGN,DC-SIGNR and SDF-1 Polymorphism in High Risk Seronegative Sexually Transmitted Disease Patients from North Indian

BackgroundDendritic cells are the first to encounter HIV-1 at mucosal sites and virus binding occurs via receptors known as DC-SIGN/R. Variations in the number of repeats in the neck region...