Sexual Orientation Research Articles

Postoj studentů sociální pedagogiky k homoparentálním rodinám

The paper is focused on the research of the attitude of the students of the Bachelor's and Master's degree programmes in social pedagogy from the J. E. Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, University of Ostrava and Masaryk University in Brno (N = 107) towards the issue of homoparental families and in a broader context towards homosexuality as such. Furthermore, we also focus on the students' perspective on how the issue of homoparental families is reflected in the educational content of the subjects in their curriculum. An accessible type of research sampling was used. The author's questionnaire constructed on the principle of Likert scales was used as a research instrument. The questionnaire includes items aimed at identifying attitudes towards gay marriage, the causes of homosexuality, the upbringing of children by homoparental parents, and the space devoted to this topic in the university training of future social educators. The data obtained were processed using descriptive methods of statistical analysis and further analyzed. The findings show that a significant majority of the respondents are in favour of homosexual couples receiving the same rights as heterosexual couples, including the possibility of marriage. Furthermore, the majority of respondents appear to be in favour of the naturalness of homosexual couples raising children. From the answers we can conclude that the students interviewed consider homosexuality as natural as heterosexuality and their attitudes are mostly positive.

Heterogeneous Associations Between Pandemic-Induced Socioeconomic Hardships and COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake by Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: A Nationally Representative Analysis in the United States

Background/Objectives: Socioeconomic hardship during the COVID-19 pandemic was associated with lower vaccine uptake. Since the pandemic has exacerbated socioeconomic challenges faced by sexual and gender minority populations, including employment income loss, housing instability, food insufficiency, and household expense difficulty, this study investigated the disparities in COVID-19 vaccine uptake among these populations. Methods: Using the U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Survey, a nationally representative sample of 1,767,966 individuals (6% gay or lesbian, 4.2% bisexual, 1.6% something else, and 90.6% heterosexual respondents), we quantified the COVID-19 vaccine uptakes among sexual and gender minorities, as well as the effect measure modifications by socioeconomic hardships. Results: Despite higher vaccine uptake rates among sexual and gender minorities compared to their heterosexual counterparts, socioeconomic hardships triggered by the pandemic among these populations were associated with decreased vaccine uptake. Importantly, the effect measure modifications by socioeconomic hardships were more pronounced among sexual and gender minority status compared to heterosexual individuals. Conclusions: These results highlight the critical need to address socioeconomic hardships among sexual and gender minorities to enhance vaccine uptake, along with the pre-existing and exacerbated social and economic disadvantages during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Beyond Lip Service: Decolonizing Children's Literature for Promoting Racial Pride, Equity, Achievement, and Liberation (REAL)

Children in P-12 schools are growing up in racially tumultuous times, despite the promises of desegregation since Brown vs. Board of Education. Multicultural education, included under the umbrella of equity, diversity, and inclusion, is under attack and illegal in an increasing number of school districts. Advanced placement in Black history and psychology courses and the use of diverse literature written for children and young adults have been banned by many school districts nationally. Educators are being threatened, sanctioned, reprimanded, and fired. Despite this, some teachers stand steadfast in their commitment to pedagogies that use authentic, high-quality literature about and by minoritized scholars. In this publication, I discuss the importance of gifted and talented education (GATE) students being taught Black history and culture that centers diverse literature that recognizes, respects, and celebrates similarities and differences within and across cultures including ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender expression, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, physical, cognitive and emotional ability, geographic location, language, and religion. Many GATE students are avid readers and like other students, they benefit from an education that includes diverse literature. Further, I use Racial Pride, Equity, Achievement, and Liberation (REAL) to underscore the monumental need for multicultural literature due to its multitude of benefits to Black and other minoritized students. In other words, children's literature can and must be decolonized, which is supported by Bishop’s metaphor of “mirrors, windows, and sliding glass doors.”

Sexual experiences, attitudes, enjoyment and regret in the parent and offspring generations of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Childhood (ALSPAC): 2022 data sweep.

The aim of this data note is to describe data collected in 2022 on sexual history, attitudes, enjoyment and regret. Data were collected from mothers (age range 47–75 years (mean 60.0), n = 4653) their partners (age range 47-83 years (mean 62.9), n= 1945) and offspring (aged ~30 years, females n= 2702, males n=1366) in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents & Children (ALSPAC). Many of the questions asked are identical, or similar, to those collected in the British NATSAL (National Surveys of Sexual Attitudes & Lifestyles) surveys. Repeating the same questions in both ALSPAC generations allows for direct inter-generational comparisons within ALSPAC as well as across studies. Areas covered include age at sexual debut; having drunk alcohol, used drugs or contraception at sexual debut; the circumstances under which participants met their first sexual partner; sexual orientation; the Brief Sexual Attitudes Scale; regret at first sexual experience, lifetime experiences of sexual regret and the degree of regret, as well as the reason(s) for that regret; number of sexual partners both in the last two years and over their lifetime; current frequency and enjoyment of sex. ALSPAC provides a rich resource of data collected on a wide variety of topics including details of the participants’ environment, lifestyle, physical and mental health over the life span, including sexual experiences collected retrospectively from the parents, and from the age of 11 in the offspring. There are thus many opportunities for research on a wide variety of topics related to risky sexual behaviours, sexual health, functioning and well-being.

Dogs on Film: Status, Representation, and the Canine Characters Test

The representation of animals in cinema and television reflects and reinforces dominant ideologies and traditional stereotypes. While popular culture often legitimizes prevailing social norms and existing power relations, it can also reflect shifting cultural attitudes about traditional axes of inequality such as race, gender, class, sexual orientation, disability, and species. Representations of canine characters incidentally embedded in family life provide a unique lens through which to consider the evolving cultural and legal status of dogs and their place in multispecies families. This article introduces a Canine Characters Test, similar to the Bechdel Test used to measure the representation of women in movies, to critically evaluate the representation of dogs in film and television. Applying the test and its four criteria—Role in Narrative, Agency, Language, and Animality—to two examples, this article argues that portrayals that pass the test support a positive shift in social norms regarding dog–human relationships, which in turn bolsters efforts to elevate dogs’ status under the law. Benevolent speciesism, authenticity, and problematic tropes such as vanishing, ornamental, and miraculous canines are also discussed.

Abstract 4125263: Influence of sexual orientation-related nondiscrimination laws on 30-year CVD risk among sexual minority and heterosexual adults

Introduction: Discriminatory policies are associated with worse mental health and substance use outcomes among sexual minority adults. Despite a higher risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) than heterosexual adults, there is limited evidence on structural determinants of cardiovascular health among sexual minority adults. Therefore, we examined whether changes in sexual orientation-related nondiscrimination laws were associated with 30-year CVD risk among sexual minority and heterosexual adults. Hypothesis: We hypothesized that changes in sexual orientation-related nondiscrimination laws would be more strongly associated with 30-year CVD risk among sexual minority adults relative to exclusively heterosexual adults. Methods: We used longitudinal data from Waves III (2001-2002), IV (2008-2009), and V (2016-2018) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. We assessed changes in four state-level sexual orientation-related nondiscrimination laws (i.e., employment discrimination, same-sex marriage, hate crime statutes, and same-sex adoption) between Waves III and IV. Changes in sexual orientation-related nondiscrimination laws were categorized as unchanged (reference), improved, or worsened. We assessed 30-year CVD risk using the Framingham Risk Score at Wave V. We ran sex-stratified linear regression models adjusted for demographic factors to examine whether the association between change in nondiscrimination laws with 30-year CVD risk was moderated by sexual orientation (i.e., exclusively heterosexual, mostly heterosexual, homosexual/bisexual). Results: The sample included 3,827 participants with a mean age of 28.7 (±1.75) years, of whom 83.1% identified as exclusively heterosexual, 51% as female, and 15% as Black. Compared to heterosexual participants of the same sex, an improvement in nondiscrimination laws was associated with lower 30-year CVD risk among mostly heterosexual women (B -4.57, 95% CI = -8.06, -1.08) and homosexual/bisexual men (B -10.91, 95% CI = -19.33, -2.49). In contrast, compared to exclusively heterosexual women, a worsening of nondiscrimination laws was associated with higher 30-year CVD risk among homosexual/bisexual women (B 5.26, 95% CI = 0.30, 10.21). No differences were found between mostly heterosexual and exclusively heterosexual men. Conclusions: Findings suggest that efforts to enhance policies prohibiting sexual orientation-related discrimination may significantly reduce CVD risk among sexual minority adults.

The Sustainable Development Goals of the Commodity Economy Deeply Influence the Diversity of Sexual Life

Human sexuality is different from other species in nature in that it is creative, accessible, and responsible; however, it is this creativity that makes sexual life differentiated, and sexual orientations become rich and diverse. Discrimination against people is not only about occupation, income, sexuality, or gender becomes discrimination against people. To achieve the goal of sustainable development, there is no discrimination against people, so this content is approached from the methodology of human philosophy and social philosophy, at the same time combining qualitative methods to analyze, synthesize, compare, contrast, and reverse to clarify the transformation of sexual life in the commodity economy. The result of this content is to explain that human sexual life is creative; it depends on the object of satisfaction. Sex does not depend on space, time, or specific objects, but occupation, goods, and money also govern the market economy. The conclusion of the article affirms that life is human satisfaction. Sexual satisfaction is not only human instinct but also human creativity. Human satisfaction differs from satisfaction with things without humans, which is satisfaction with loneliness, isolation, and unhappiness. Humans become different types of goods serving the life of money, posing a challenge to the goal of sustainable development in the commodity economy. However, there must be practical solutions to survive and maintain the race, bringing humans back to a creative sexual life and responsible reproduction to achieve the goal of sustainable development in the commodity economy.

Predictors of Trauma Symptoms in Adults Living with HIV: The Role of Social Connectedness and Sexual Orientation

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has claimed over 740,000 lives in the United States since the 1980s, and further brought a host of mental health concerns, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), primarily brought on by the discrimination and stigma felt by people living with HIV (PLWHA). Social connectedness may serve as a buffer to the trauma often felt by PLWHA. However, rejection and discrimination can limit access to this needed support, especially for sexual minorities living with HIV. The present study (N = 396) examined relationships between social connectedness, trauma symptoms, and sexual orientation for PLWHA. Results showed that social connectedness was a significant predictor of trauma symptoms within the sample, while sexual orientation did not hold a significant relationship with these symptoms. Clinical implications for professional counselors are discussed.

LGB and Religious Identities Integration: A Cluster Analysis Using Well-Being, Openness of Sexual Orientation, and Conflicting Religious Variables

LGB and Religious Identities Integration: A Cluster Analysis Using Well-Being, Openness of Sexual Orientation, and Conflicting Religious Variables

Between worlds: Cis-and trans-identifying diaspora Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) women in Ontario, Canada on the intersections of gender, sexuality and sexual health.

Youth Sexual Health and HIV/STI Prevention in Middle Eastern and North African Communities (YSMENA) is the first community-based research study in Canada to explore key determinants of sexual health among diaspora Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) women living in Canada. Our objectives were to identify the factors influencing sexual health for MENA youth and grow an evidence base to strengthen the sexual health response for MENA communities. Using mixed- method design, data were gathered through a quantitative socio-demographic survey and qualitative focus groups with 24 women-identifying MENA youth (16-29 years) living in Ontario, Canada. Six (6) focus groups were held virtually via Zoom, with heterosexual, lesbian, bisexual and queer (LBQ), and trans women. Members of each group participated in two sessions as per the sequential critical dialogical method and transcripts were coded in NVIVO. While participants identified with diverse sexual orientations and across the trans-feminine gender spectrum, key commonalities surfaced, namely the pressures to conform to familial expectations and the barriers faced when accessing healthcare. The trans group experienced compounded levels of exclusion given their unique positioning. Although the challenges faced by the group were deeply entrenched in patriarchy, heteronormativity and internalized shame, many participants demonstrated resilience and self-acceptance that enabled them to forge pathways to health. Findings have important and valuable implications for community-based health programs targeting MENA women as well as healthcare practitioners and service providers.

Reporting Sex and Gender Differences in Cardiovascular Research

Incorporating sexual orientation, gender identity, and expression (SOGIE) data into cardiovascular research design is necessary to reduce cardiovascular healthcare disparities among sexual and gender minority (SGM) people. To achieve this, researchers should not only understand appropriate terminology, but also implement inclusive survey tools that respect privacy and cultural nuances, as the benefit of obtaining SOGIE information is critical to tailoring cardiovascular interventions and ensuring equitable healthcare outcomes. In order to address potential concerns related to disclosing SOGIE information, we must prioritize sensitivity training for healthcare professionals to foster an inclusive environment for data collection, ethical considerations, and confidentiality safeguards. This review aims to develop and inform critical thinking about sex and gender and to identify strategic mechanisms to include SOGIE data in cardiovascular research, thus improving cardiovascular health outcomes for SGM individuals. By embracing a more comprehensive and inclusive approach to data collection, cardiovascular research can contribute significantly to advancing personalized and inclusive healthcare practices and medical education, and ultimately promote better health outcomes for all SGM individuals.

Age, sex and sexual orientation effects in the Safetxt trial: secondary data analysis of a randomised controlled trial

BackgroundIncreasing rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and antimicrobial resistance among young people underscore the urgent need for preventative interventions. Interventions should be evidence-based and tailored to the unique risks...

Minority stress and psychological well-being in queer populations

Queer individuals experience unique stressors related to their minority status, negatively impacting their mental health. One factor contributing to these disparities is exposure to minority stress, which involves social stressors related to minority status. Previous research has focused on the negative impacts of minority stress, with less attention to its impact on positive psychological functioning. This study explored the relationship between minority stress and psychological well-being among 270 queer individuals in German-speaking countries. Participants completed an online survey assessing minority stress and psychological well-being. Analyses of Covariance indicated that proximal factors of minority stress—such as self-stigma, concealment, and expectations of rejection—had a particularly negative impact on psychological well-being, but no effects could be found for gender and sexual orientation. Additionally, gender identity but not sexual orientation had a significant effect on minority stress, with non-binary and other gender identities reporting higher minority stress compared to females. Thematic analysis revealed concerns about survey inclusivity, gender identity challenges, and intersectionality of minority identities. Our findings emphasize the significant impact of minority stress on the psychological well-being of queer individuals, particularly non-binary people and those with diverse gender identities, while demonstrating the need for inclusive research methodologies, tailored interventions, and policies addressing the diverse experiences within the queer community.

Cancer disparities by age: a focus on sexual and gender minorities.

The purpose of this study is to examine the age at which sexual and gender minorities are diagnosed with cancer relative to heterosexual cisgender individuals. We use population-based representative Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey data with self-reported sexual orientation, gender identity, cancer diagnoses, and the age at diagnosis. We determined the mean age at diagnosis and used logistic regression modeling to obtain odds ratios, reporting significant differences defined as p < 0.05. Separately, we adjusted for race/ethnicity and corrected for underlying differences in the age of survey respondents. Compared to heterosexual cisgender populations, sexual and gender minorities are diagnosed about 4-11years earlier, with bisexual women and transgender individuals reporting the youngest age, 43.9 and 52.1years, respectively. When focusing on select cancer types, lesbian and bisexual women are diagnosed earlier with breast, melanoma, other skin cancers, and leukemia & lymphoma. Gay and bisexual men are diagnosed earlier with colorectal cancers, and transgender individuals earlier with breast, prostate, melanoma, and other skin cancers compared to heterosexual men and women. These findings suggest that sexual and gender minorities experience earlier onset of cancer and many of these age differences remained even after adjustments were made. These findings need to be confirmed in oncology settings that have cancer incidence and sexual orientation and gender identity data and call for greater attention to sexual and gender minorities in cancer research.

Viral hepatitis knowledge and vaccination awareness among men who have sex with men (MSM) in 43 countries of the WHO European Region: results from the European MSM Internet Survey, EMIS-2017.

BackgroundRecent hepatitis A virus outbreaks in Europe affecting men who have sex with men (MSM) and ongoing hepatitis B virus transmission among MSM underscore the ongoing need for viral hepatitis prevention in this population.AimTo describe viral hepatitis knowledge and associated factors among MSM in the WHO European Region to inform targeted prevention.MethodsIn the European MSM Internet Survey (EMIS-2017), basic knowledge was defined as correctly identifying at least 4 of 5 statements about viral hepatitis and vaccination. We described basic knowledge by country. In a multilevel logistic regression model, we estimated adjusted odds ratios (aOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for having basic knowledge and explanatory variables: sociodemographic characteristics, history of hepatitis C and/or HIV diagnosis, sexual orientation disclosure at last sexually transmitted infections (STI) test and outness.ResultsOf 113,884 participants across 43 WHO European Region countries, 68% demonstrated basic knowledge, ranging from 50% in Israel to 80% in the Netherlands. Basic knowledge was significantly associated with older age (≥ 40 years vs < 25 years, aOR: 2.9, 95% CI: 2.7-3.0), a history of hepatitis C and/or HIV diagnosis (aOR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.7-1.9) and sexual orientation disclosure at last STI test (aOR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.2-1.3), among other factors.ConclusionsWe found a knowledge disparity regarding viral hepatitis and hepatitis vaccination awareness among MSM across Europe, highlighting a need to address these gaps. A non-judgemental, accepting climate that allows individuals attending medical services to safely disclose their sexual orientation is fundamental to enable healthcare professionals to target information and preventative measures more effectively.

Exploring Sexual Satisfaction in Lesbian and Bisexual Women from a Minority Stress Perspective

Sexual health among lesbian and bisexual (LB) women has largely been studied in the context of sexual health behaviors. Less is known about aspects of sexual health such as sexual satisfaction and minority stress processes as possible predictors of sexual satisfaction. This study explored sexual satisfaction and minority stress in LB women. Single and partnered cisgender LB women (N = 627) were compared on measures of sexual satisfaction and proximal minority stress (i.e., internalized homonegativity and outness/concealment). The proximal minority stress variables were tested as predictors of sexual satisfaction in a regression analysis. Multigroup analyses were also conducted to explore differences between lesbian and bisexual women in the regression analysis. Participants were recruited through LGBT+ websites and other social media platforms in Norway. Results showed that lesbian women were more open about their sexual orientation, reported greater identification with the LGBT+ community, and were more sexually satisfied than bisexual women. Those with a steady partner were also more sexually satisfied than those who were single. Being younger, partnered and experiencing less internalized homonegativity (IH) predicted greater satisfaction in LB women overall, and no differences in the predictors across sexual orientation were found in the multigroup analysis.

How Experiences of Stigma and Discrimination at Various Points in the Queer Life Course Interrelate with Alcohol Use: Views from Sexually and Gender Diverse Youth

Background: The life courses of sexually and gender diverse individuals are shaped by a series of events that include acceptance of one’s own sexual orientation or gender identity, the coming out process and socialization in the LGBTQ+ (for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer/Questioning, and other sexual orientations and gender identities represented by the plus sign) environment. Generally experienced in a cis-heteronormative context, this process is marked by stigma and discrimination and the social harms they can cause, including a higher-than-average prevalence of alcohol use. Objectives: To profile the alcohol use of sexually and gender diverse (SGD) youth from a life course perspective and to explore individual perceptions regarding the personal, social and cultural factors (including stigmatization and its consequences) modulating their consumption. Methodology: This qualitative descriptive study is grounded in symbolic interactionism. Semi-structured interviews lasting approximately 90 min were conducted with LGBTQ+ youth aged 18 to 30 using alcohol at least once a week. A thematic analysis was performed. Results: A total of 31 individuals aged 18–29 (average age: 25) were interviewed. The average score regarding alcohol use was 14.25 (Standard Deviation -SD-: 4–31), which corresponds to a moderate risk and indicates the need for a brief intervention. Our study documents how the higher alcohol use among LGBTQ+ youth is shaped by individual, community and cultural factors at different points in the queer life course. Among the factors influencing drinking are the emotions experienced when questioning sexual orientation and/or gender identity as well as the feelings resulting from stigma and discrimination. Our findings also indicate the influence of socializing in the queer community and meeting peers and partners, as well as that of LGBTQ+ cultural practices. Discussion: Our study indicates the need for grassroots-level interventions that work to mitigate social pressures in queer socialization contexts. Accordingly, any intervention, whether preventive or therapeutic, must consider the interplay of personal, social, community and cultural factors. Interventions regarding alcohol use must build on the strengths of community and the sense of belonging.

Sexual experiences and behaviours of the parents in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Childhood (ALSPAC)

The aim of this data note is to describe the sexual experiences, functioning and behaviour data collected from the parent cohorts of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) occurring during their childhoods and up to 19 years after the birth of the index child. ALSPAC is an ongoing birth cohort which enrolled 14,541 pregnant women living in Avon, an area of southwest England, with expected dates of delivery between April 1991 and December 1992 inclusive. It continues collecting data on these mothers (age range at delivery &lt;16–41 years), their partners (age range at delivery &lt;16–65), and their offspring, so far resulting in 100,000+ phenotype variables. During the index pregnancy the mothers were asked (and at 8 months post-delivery for partners) about their early sexual experiences to identify sexual abuse, the age at which an event first occurred, along with the type of perpetrator (e.g. stranger, relatives, boy/girlfriend). There are also data on these parents’ experiences of sexual assault as adults. Both parents were asked also about sexual abuse within a battery of questions identifying Adverse Childhood Events (ACEs). Further longitudinal data described here includes satisfaction with sexual and non-sexual sides of their relationship; sexual functioning; and at seven years post-delivery, both parents were asked to describe their sexual orientation as well as the sex of their partners. These data provide the ability to compare generational differences between parental sexual experiences and behaviours with those of their offspring, as well as allowing comparisons with other longitudinal surveys where similar (or identical) information has been collected such as the National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (NATSAL-3). This paper forms a companion to a further data note describing similar data collected on the offspring cohort.

Risky Sexual Behavior in Men Who Have Sex with Men at Sentani Public Health Center

Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) is used for men who engage in sexual activities with other men who are increasingly online to show their true selves. Men who have sex with men (MSM) have a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections, especially being infected with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). The purpose of this study was to determine the risky sexual behavior of men who have sex with men at the Sentani Papua Health Center. The research method used a qualitative approach with in-depth interviews. Determination of informants using purposive sampling technique with a total of 4 informants (3 main informants and 1 key informant). Data were collected through in-depth interviews and then analyzed thematically. Results: the results of this study indicate that informants are aged 18-35 years, and produce five (5) themes, namely sexual orientation where all informants are attracted to the same sex (homosexual), no sexual disorientation, sexual deviations obtained from informants are never using condoms, having anal sex, having oral sex, and ejaculating in the mouth, and opportunistic diseases found in informants are Gonorrhea, Candidias, Diarrhea, TB, Dermatitis, and TB. Lungs Conclusion: the results of the study indicate that all informants who like the same sex, engage in sexually deviant behavior every time they engage in sexual activity and informants need the provision of hotline counseling in preventing HIV transmission.

Beyond Binary: Exploring the Dynamics of Bi-Curiosity Propulsion and Persistence Among Young Women

Sexual identity fails to adhere to the dichotomous models, transcending to a more fluid quality than normative compulsory heterosexuality. The present study investigates the experience of bi-curiosity, focusing on its initiation among young women residing in urban India. Bi-curiosity, a sexual orientation questioning marked by exploratory experiences, is a possible but not a necessary precursor to bisexuality. This qualitative study explores on the psychological and social factors contributing to a bi-curious orientation. It focuses on the subjective processes of development and maintenance of sexual identity questioning. Three organizing themes emerged from the Reflective Thematic Analysis: (a.) Affective Indicators, (b.) Social Experiences, and (c.) Intimacy in friendships. While sexual identity questioning was propelled by more psychological factors, like physical attraction, fantasy, experienced jealousy toward men, and comfort with the same sex, social and environmental factors contribute significantly. Individual experiences with patriarchy, social attitudes toward same-sex relationships, and their representation on media platforms often reinforce the process. Another important contributor was women’s close friendships with the same sex, which are sites for physical closeness, emotional intimacy, and personal growth, and share these characteristics with romantic relationships. These factors emerged as important reinforcers to the development and maintenance of sexual identity questioning.