Sexual Assault Resistance Research Articles

A Successful Sexual Assault Resistance Program Also Reduced Intimate Partner Violence.

Despite several parallels between intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual assault (SA), programs designed to reduce either of these forms of violence against women rarely evaluate the impact on both IPV and SA. Accordingly, we investigated whether one such program (the Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) Sexual Assault Resistance program), designed to help university-aged women resist SA, could also reduce subsequent IPV. Women university students who were enrolled in the Sexual Assault Resistance Education (SARE) randomized controlled trial examining the impact of the EAAA program on SA, were recruited immediately after completing the last survey in the SARE trial. From this trial, 153 women completed the IPV substudy, which included an additional survey. Occurrence of IPV was assessed using the Composite Abuse Scale. Of the 93 new relationships reported by 66 women in the control group, the 1-year risk of IPV was 26.8%. In contrast, of the 113 new relationships reported by 87 women in the EAAA program group, the 1-year risk of IPV was 12.2%. Effectively, the EAAA program significantly reduced the 1-year risk of IPV by 54.4% (p = .037, 95% CI [2.9%, 79.8%]). Our findings suggest that the EAAA program is effective in reducing the risk of IPV and highlights the generalizability of programming that targets the foundational underpinning of multiple forms of gender-based violence.

Empowering trans and nonbinary students against sexual assault

Empowering trans and nonbinary students against sexual assault Sarah Peitzmeier, Micah Hopkins and Charlene Y. Senn describe how an effective sexual assault resistance program for women is being adapted for trans and nonbinary students. Transgender and nonbinary college students face a staggering rate of sexual violence, with national estimates suggesting that 40% of trans and nonbinary undergraduates are sexually assaulted during their four-year enrollment. (1) Even so, no sexual assault prevention programs for trans and nonbinary students have been designed, tested, and widely implemented.

Empowerment through education: Sexual assault resistance programs for girls and young women

Empowerment through education: Sexual assault resistance programs for girls and young women Charlene Y. Senn and Sara E. Crann from the University of Windsor discuss the importance of sexual assault resistance programs in equipping girls and young women with the knowledge and skills to reduce the risk of sexual assault. Sexual assault is a form of gender-based violence. While anyone can be a victim, research consistently finds that victims are most often girls and women (~85%), and 90% of perpetrators are boys and men. Research also shows that it is girls and young women between 14-24 years old who are at the highest risk for sexual assault. Despite over 50 years of high-quality research on sexual assault and widespread attention to the issue through movements like #MeToo, we have seen little progress in reducing sexual assault on a broad scale. Ending sexual assault requires a comprehensive strategy that includes:

Correlates of College Women's Sexual Assault Resistance Self-Efficacy.

Studies suggest that actively fighting back against an attacker is effective in decreasing the severity and completion of a sexual assault, yet little is known about the factors that contribute to women's confidence in fighting back. Accordingly, the present study examines correlates of college women's self-efficacy in resisting unwanted sexual advances (N = 650). Results suggest that fewer psychological barriers to resistance, greater sexual communication, increased use of dating self-protective behaviors, and greater sexual assertiveness were associated with increased sexual resistance self-efficacy. Findings underscore the importance of developing sexual assault prevention programs that increase women's confidence in fighting back.

Testing the effectiveness of a sexual assault resistance programme in ‘real-world’ implementation

ABSTRACT Background: In a multi-site randomized controlled trial (RCT), the EAAA programme designed for first year university women (17–24 years old) was shown to reduce the likelihood of any (attempted and completed) rape in the next year by 50% (Senn, C. Y., Eliasziw, M., Barata, P. C., Thurston, W. E., Newby-Clark, I. R., Radtke, H. L., & Hobden, K. L. (2015). Efficacy of a sexual assault resistance program for university women. New England Journal of Medicine, 372(24), 2326–2335). Through a non-profit organization, EAAA has been available to universities globally since 2016 using a Train-the-Trainer model. Observations of the ‘real world’ implementation suggested that universities often altered eligibility criteria (especially year of study and age) in their recruitment. Objective: The current study (2017–2021) evaluated whether EAAA was effective when implemented by universities in Canada outside of the constraints of an RCT. Method: Five universities participated. Women students who signed up to take the EAAA programme on their campuses were recruited for the research. Participants completed surveys at 1-week pre-program and 1-week and 6-months post-programme. Compared to the RCT, participant eligibility was broader, the sample was more diverse in terms of race and sexual identity and had a higher proportion of survivors. Programme fidelity was adequate. Results: Comparisons in this quasi-experimental design, between students who took the programme and students in the control group (i.e. those who signed up but did not attend the programme), confirmed the effectiveness of the EAAA programme. Reduction of any rape exceeded the a priori benchmark of 37.5%. Completed rape was significantly reduced by 57.3% at 6-months. Reduction in attempted rape of 32.9% was lower than in the RCT likely due to the somewhat older (average age 22 vs 18) sample. Positive changes to previously established mediators of the programme effects were all replicated. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the EAAA is highly effective when implemented by universities even when eligibility for students in terms of year of study and age is broadened.

In Their Own Words: Sexual Assault Resistance Strategies Among Kenyan Adolescent Girls Following Participation in an Empowerment Self-Defense Program.

The purpose of this study was to examine, via testimonial data, resistance strategies used to thwart a sexual assault among slum-dwelling Kenyan adolescent girls (N = 678) following their participation in an empowerment self-defense program (IMpower). The majority (58.2%) of perpetrators were strangers; there were no differences in resistance strategies used between strangers versus known perpetrators (83.8% used verbal strategies, 33.2% used resistance strategies, 16.7% ran away, and 7.9% used distraction). Associations between resistance strategies and perpetrator tactics, number of assailants, location of the assault, and the presence of a bystander were also examined.

Evaluation of the Transfer of Training for a Sexual Assault Resistance Program Enhanced with Sexuality Education

IntroductionThe Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) Sexual Assault (SA) Resistance Program is a theoretically sound, evidence-based program providing SA resistance education within a positive sexuality framework. It was shown to substantially reduce sexual assault victimization among university women who participate (Senn et al. in New England Journal of Medicine 372(24), 2326-2335, 2015). Staff training can either enhance or impede successful program scale-up and implementation. In this paper, we evaluate the transfer of training to implementation sites (i.e., postsecondary institutions) using a train-the-trainer model.MethodsUsing pre- and post-training surveys and post-training interviews conducted from 2016 to 2020 with 33 implementation staff members from multiple sites, we answered the following research questions:1. Did the training meet its overall goal of preparing implementation staff?2. What training components were perceived to contribute to training effectiveness and implementation staff preparedness?ResultsResults suggested that our model of training was effective. Competence, confidence, and knowledge and ability increased significantly after training, and most staff perceived the training to be highly useful and effective (especially for preparing them to address EAAA participant issues). Practice and feedback from trainers through active learning techniques were especially important. Although implementation staff reported being well prepared to deliver the training or program, they reported being less prepared for handling other implementation-related activities and issues (that the training was not necessarily designed to address in-depth).ConclusionsOur findings suggest a need to enhance existing training on self-care and supporting program facilitators and for ongoing support and reminders from program purveyors to ensure that implementers are making use of existing resources. This study fills important gaps in the literature as few studies have examined the transfer of training for SA prevention programming.

Sexual Assault Resistance Education’s Benefits for Survivors of Attempted and Completed Rape

The effectiveness of the Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) program in reducing victimization and impacting other outcomes (mediators of program effects) was demonstrated in a randomized controlled trial. A planned analysis showed that program effects on sexual assault were not significantly different for survivors of completed rape and other women. The present article investigated whether the impact of EAAA on incidence of rape and attempted rape and on the mediators of EAAA’s effectiveness (e.g., situational risk detection, direct resistance, self-defense self-efficacy) was strengthened or weakened for women with a history of victimization (i.e., history of rape, attempted rape, or neither). EAAA’s impact on self-blame for women who experienced rape after program participation was also assessed. Data from 851 women who received either EAAA or a control intervention were examined. Regardless of victimization history, participants benefited from EAAA to some degree (28%–85% relative risk reduction). Prior victimization was not a significant moderator of the variables that mediate EAAA’s effectiveness, suggesting EAAA functions similarly for women regardless of victimization history. Finally, women who were raped post-intervention blamed themselves significantly less after taking EAAA than women in the control group. This effect was found both for rape survivors and women with no history of victimization but not for attempted rape survivors. These results contribute to the #MeToo movement(s) by showing the power of feminist resistance education as well as areas where program adaptation or boosters are needed.

"I Felt Powerful and Confident": Women's Use of What They Learned in Feminist Sexual Assault Resistance Education.

Research on women’s response and resistance to sexual assault risk has informed the development of interventions to improve women’s ability to effectively resist sexual assault. However, little is known about how women anticipate, navigate, and respond to risk following participation in sexual assault risk reduction/resistance education programs. In this study, we examined the information and skills used by university women who had recently completed the effective Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) sexual assault resistance program. We analyzed responses from 445 women using descriptive statistics and content and thematic analysis. Just under half (42%) of women used at least one EAAA strategy in the following 2 years. Most women reported that their efforts were successful in stopping an attack. Women’s responses included strategies both to preempt sexual assault threat (e.g., avoiding men who display danger cues, communicating assertively about wanted and unwanted sex) and to interrupt or avoid an imminent threat (e.g., yelling, hitting, and kicking). Women’s use of resistance strategies worked to subvert gendered social norms and socialization. The results suggest that counter to criticisms that risk reduction/resistance programs blame women or make them responsible for stopping men’s violence, women who took EAAA typically positioned themselves as agentic and empowered in their resistance.

An Evaluation of Strategies Used to Maximize Intervention Fidelity in a Randomized Controlled Trial of a Sexual Assault Resistance Program for University Women

In this paper, we describe and evaluate the strategies used to maximize intervention fidelity in a randomized controlled trial to examine the efficacy of a sexual assault resistance intervention. The EAAA program was based on the best available theory and evidence on how women can successfully resist sexual coercion from male acquaintances. Extensive protocols for hiring, training, and supervising facilitators were established a priori. Detailed intervention manuals were developed that clearly described program goals, learning objectives, core elements, troubleshooting tips, sections that must be delivered verbatim, adaptations that could be made if necessary, and the ideal and minimum dose. Program sessions were audio-recorded, and a subsample of recordings were scored for adherence to the manuals using detailed Intervention Fidelity Checklists (IFC) developed specifically for this research. The Gearing et al. (2011) Comprehensive Intervention Fidelity Guide (CFIG) was employed retrospectively to provide objectivity to our analysis and help identify what we did well and what we could have done better. The SARE (Sexual Assault Resistance Education) Trial received high scores (38 out of 44 (86%) from each of the first two authors on the CFIG, suggesting a high level of intervention fidelity. Although a potential for bias on the part of the two raters was an obvious limitation, as was our neglection to include measures of implementation receipt, which Gearing et al. (2011) recommended, our analysis underscores the utility in employing methods recommended to enhance intervention fidelity when developing and evaluating evidence-based interventions.

Testing a Model of How a Sexual Assault Resistance Education Program for Women Reduces Sexual Assaults

The Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) program has been shown to reduce sexual assaults experienced by university students who identify as women. Prevention researchers emphasize testing theory-based mechanisms once positive outcomes related to effectiveness are established. We assessed the process by which EAAA’s positive outcomes are achieved in a sample of 857 first year university students. EAAA’s goals are to increase risk detection in social interactions, decrease obstacles to risk detection or resistance with known men, and increase women’s use of effective self-defense. We used chained multiple mediator modeling to assess the combined effects of the primary mediators (risk detection, direct resistance, and self-defense self-efficacy) while simultaneously assessing the interrelationships among the secondary mediators (perception of personal risk, belief in the myth of female precipitation, and general rape myth acceptance). The hypothesized multiple mediation model with three primary mediators met the criterion for full mediation of the intervention effects. Together, the mediators accounted for 95% and 76% of the reductions in completed and attempted rape, respectively, demonstrating full mediation. The hypothesized secondary mediators were important in achieving improvements in personal and situational risk detection. The findings strongly support the benefit of cognitive ecological theory and the Assess, Acknowledge, Act conceptualization underlying EAAA. This evidence can be used by administrators and staff responsible for prevention policy and practice on campuses to defend the implementation of theoretically grounded, evidence-based prevention programs. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684320962561

Navigating uncertainty, employment and women's safety during COVID-19: Reflections of sexual assault resistance educators.

COVID‐19 affects women in ways unique to the impacts of structural inequalities related to gender, sexuality, disability, race and socioeconomic status. In this article, we reflect on our own experiences of the pandemic, as feminist students, workers and sexual assault resistance educators located in a Canadian post‐secondary setting. Situating ourselves within feminist responses to sexual violence prevention, as facilitators of the Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, and Act (EAAA) sexual assault resistance education programme for university women, we reflect on the impacts of the COVID‐19 pandemic on our work as EAAA facilitators in our Canadian university. We explore the theoretical possibilities that critical disability theory and queer theory present to the EAAA programme, and argue that incorporating concepts from these frameworks will complement the goals of the EAAA programme and improve inclusivity of queer, trans and disabled participants. We conclude with a look into the future by anticipating the impacts of COVID‐19 on our future work.

The Influence of Sexual Assault Resistance on Reporting Tendencies and Law Enforcement Response: Findings From the National Crime Victimization Survey.

Despite its prevalence, sexual assault remains a vastly underreported crime. Previous research suggests that engagement in certain types of resistance during an assault affects the way in which both victims and others perceive the attack; such perceptions influence victims' likelihood of reporting the assault to law enforcement as well as the criminal justice system response to reported allegations. Using a fight/flight/freeze theoretical framework, the current study sought to examine how forceful, nonforceful, and freeze responding influenced victim reporting and the extent to which reported assaults were pursued and investigated by law enforcement. Using data from the National Crime Victimization Survey between 2010 and 2016, logistic regression analysis indicated that victims are significantly less likely to report to law enforcement if they froze during the attack. Interestingly, although engagement in forceful resistance increases victims' likelihood of reporting to law enforcement, it has no bearing on law enforcement response beyond the effect of physical injury. Rather, physical injury (e.g., bruises, cuts, broken bones) is the only predictor of law enforcement response to sexual assault allegations. Findings suggest that whereas fight and freeze responses to sexual victimization influence victims' willingness to report to law enforcement, resistance is not uniquely predictive of law enforcement response once physical injury is considered.

Developments in Sexual Assault Resistance Education: Combining Risk Reduction and Primary Prevention

Most sexual assault prevention focuses exclusively on primary prevention programs. Risk reduction strategies, however, have an equally important role to play in prevention efforts. By way of illustration, we provide efficacy data on a sexual assault protection program that incorporates both primary prevention and risk reduction within a single seminar. These data, which replicate previous program evaluations while adding two new cohorts of program and control group students, indicate that program participants exhibit long-term attitude change and have significantly reduced rates of assault relative to the control group. Implications for campus programming are discussed.

Women's self‐defense and sexual assault resistance: The state of the field

AbstractPublic attention to sexual assault has increased dramatically over the last decade, spurring questions about how it can be prevented. One approach that has received scant attention is women's self‐defense training (sometimes known as sexual assault resistance training). This neglect is curious because empowerment‐based women's self‐defense (ESD) training is so far theonlyapproach that has produced substantively significant decreases in victimization rates. In this article, I review the research evidence on women's self‐defense training. Does resisting a sexual assault affect the outcome of sexual violence? Does self‐defensetrainingfurther reduce women's risk of violence? What are the other consequences of self‐defense training? How does self‐defense work for different groups of women—for example, those who have survived prior victimizations? Are the critiques of women's self‐defense training valid? Finally, what do we still need to learn about women's self‐defense? Overall, I argue that this evidence presents a compelling case that women's self‐defense training should be central to any efforts to prevent sexual violence.

Secondary and 2-Year Outcomes of a Sexual Assault Resistance Program for University Women.

We report the secondary outcomes and longevity of efficacy from a randomized controlled trial that evaluated a novel sexual assault resistance program designed for first-year women university students. Participants (N = 893) were randomly assigned to receive the Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) program or a selection of brochures (control). Perception of personal risk, self-defense self-efficacy, and rape myth acceptance was assessed at baseline; 1-week postintervention; and 6-, 12-, 18-, and 24-month postrandomization. Risk detection was assessed at 1 week, 6 months, and 12 months. Sexual assault experience and knowledge of effective resistance strategies were assessed at all follow-ups. The EAAA program produced significant increases in women’s perception of personal risk, self-defense self-efficacy, and knowledge of effective (forceful verbal and physical) resistance strategies; the program also produced decreases in general rape myth acceptance and woman blaming over the entire 24-month follow-up period. Risk detection was significantly improved for the intervention group at post-test. The program significantly reduced the risk of completed and attempted rape, attempted coercion, and nonconsensual sexual contact over the entire follow-up period, yielding reductions between 30% and 64% at 2 years. The EAAA program produces long-lasting changes in secondary outcomes and in the incidence of sexual assault experienced by women students. Universities can reduce the harm and the negative health consequences that young women experience as a result of campus sexual assault by implementing this program. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index.

Efficacy of a Sexual Assault Resistance Program for University Women

BackgroundYoung women attending university are at substantial risk for being sexually assaulted, primarily by male acquaintances, but effective strategies to reduce this risk remain elusive. MethodsWe randomly assigned first-year female students at three universities in Canada to the Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program (resistance group) or to a session providing access to brochures on sexual assault, as was common university practice (control group). The resistance program consists of four 3-hour units in which information is provided and skills are taught and practiced, with the goal of being able to assess risk from acquaintances, overcome emotional barriers in acknowledging danger, and engage in effective verbal and physical self-defense. The primary outcome was completed rape, as measured by the Sexual Experiences Survey–Short Form Victimization, during 1 year of follow-up. ResultsA total of 451 women were assigned to the resistance group and 442 women to the control g...

Sexual Assault Resistance Program Lowers Rape Rate in University Women

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Efficacy of a Sexual Assault Resistance Program for University Women

BackgroundYoung women attending university are at substantial risk for being sexually assaulted, primarily by male acquaintances, but effective strategies to reduce this risk remain elusive.MethodsWe randomly assigned first-year female students at three universities in Canada to the Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program (resistance group) or to a session providing access to brochures on sexual assault, as was common university practice (control group). The resistance program consists of four 3-hour units in which information is provided and skills are taught and practiced, with the goal of being able to assess risk from acquaintances, overcome emotional barriers in acknowledging danger, and engage in effective verbal and physical self-defense. The primary outcome was completed rape, as measured by the Sexual Experiences Survey–Short Form Victimization, during 1 year of follow-up.ResultsA total of 451 women were assigned to the resistance group and 442 women to the control group. Of the women assigned to the resistance group, 91% attended at least three of the four units. The 1-year risk of completed rape was significantly lower in the resistance group than in the control group (5.2% vs. 9.8%; relative risk reduction, 46.3% [95% confidence interval, 6.8 to 69.1]; P=0.02). The 1-year risk of attempted rape was also significantly lower in the resistance group (3.4% vs. 9.3%, P<0.001).ConclusionsA rigorously designed and executed sexual assault resistance program was successful in decreasing the occurrence of rape, attempted rape, and other forms of victimization among first-year university women. (Funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the University of Windsor; SARE ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01338428.)

Sexual violence in the lives of first-year university women in Canada: no improvements in the 21st century.

BackgroundSummarizes the frequency, type, and context of sexual assault in a large sample of first-year university women at three Canadian universities.MethodsAs part of a randomized controlled trial assessing the efficacy of a sexual assault resistance education program, baseline data were collected from women between ages of 17 and 24 using computerized surveys. Participants’ experience with sexual victimization since the age of 14 years was assessed using the Sexual Experiences Survey--Short Form Victimization (SES-SFV).ResultsAmong 899 first-year university women (mean age = 18.5 years), 58.7% (95% CI: 55.4%, 62.0%) had experienced one or more forms of victimization since the age of 14 years, 35.0% (95% CI: 31.9%, 38.3%) had experienced at least one completed or attempted rape, and 23.5% (95% CI: 20.7%, 26.4%) had been raped. Among the 211 rape victims, 46.4% (95% CI: 39.7%, 53.2%) had experienced more than one type of assault (oral, vaginal, anal) in a single incident or across multiple incidents. More than three-quarters (79.6%; 95% CI: 74.2%, 85.1%) of the rapes occurred while women were incapacitated by alcohol or drugs. One-third (33.3%) of women had previous self-defence training, but few (4.0%) had previous sexual assault education.ConclusionsFindings from the first large Canadian study of university women since the 1990s indicate that a large proportion of women arrive on campuses with histories of sexual victimization, and they are generally unprepared for the perpetrators they may face during their academic years. There is an urgent need for effective rape prevention programs on university campuses.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT01338428. Registered 13 April 2011.