Sex-role Categories Research Articles

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. Sex role classification in adolescents can have a significant impact on their development and well-being. While this classification can provide a framework for understanding gender identity, it can also limit possibilities for exploration and result in high conformity pressure. Adolescents may feel bound to narrow gender stereotypes, causing restrictions in self-expression and opportunities available to them. Impacts include increased risk of mental disorders, discrimination and stigma. To facilitate positive growth, it is important for society to recognize and support the diversity of gender identities, and provide space for adolescents to explore their interests, talents and aspirations without the restrictions imposed by gender stereotypes.

Sex Role Orientation and Romantic Relationship Satisfaction: A Study in Turkey

The purpose of the present study is to examine the relationship between the sex role orientation and the relationship satisfaction in Turkish dating couples. Seventy dating couples completed Bem Sex Role Inventory, theRelationship Assessment Scale and a demographic information form. The results indicated that while perceived sex role orientation of the partners was related to relationship satisfaction, actual sex role orientation of the partner was not related. That is, individuals who perceived their partners as androgynous reported higher levels of relationship satisfaction than the other perceived sex role classifications. The results were discussed in terms of earlier studies, sample characteristics and bias in close relationships.

CATEGORICAL AND CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF SEX-ROLE ORIENTATION: DIFFERENCES IN ASSOCIATIONS WITH YOUNG ADULTS'REPORTS OF WELL-BEING

Previous research suggests many of the qualities necessary for successful well-being are masculine in nature. However, masculinity and femininity have been considered related constructs as opposed to being distinctly different sex-role characterizations. Therefore, this study examined the hypothesized associations between sex-role orientation and reports of well-being by looking at the combined and separate contributions of masculinity and femininity reports. Responses from 286 college undergraduates to the BEM Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) and measures of well-being (i.e., loneliness (UCLA Loneliness Scale, revised by Russell, Peplau, & Cutrona, 1980), personal discomfort (Personal Discomfort Subscale of the Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Social Introversion-Extroversion Scale, Graham, Schroeder, & Lilly, 1971), self-esteem (Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Rosenberg, 1965), and social anxiety and avoidance (Social Anxiety and Social Avoidance Scale, Franke & Hymel, 1984) indicated both categorical and continuous measures of sex role were associated with well-being. Examination of sex-role categories revealed participants with masculine and androgynous orientations reported higher well-being scores than did those with feminine and undifferentiated orientations. Further, examination of separate femininity and masculinity scores indicated that masculinity was positively – and femininity was negatively – associated with participant reports of well-being. Findings are discussed in terms of considering masculinity and femininity as separate measures of sex-role orientation when examining the association between sex roles and well-being.

An Investigation of Sex-Role stereotypes in African Americans

The theoretical literature exploring both sex-role classification and sex-role stereotypes in African Americans is scanty. In most cases, when these constructs are studied, and even when African Americans are considered to constitute an independent cultural group, the theoretical framework is still Euro-American. In addition, African Americans are still most often researched in comparison to Euro-Americans. The consistent evaluation of African Americans on Euro-American dimensions presents many problems. One very serious problem is that such comparisons typically neglect the cultural integrity of African Americans. Consequently, the focus of the research question and discussion of the findings are based on a Euro-American perspective. This ultimately leaves the African American misunderstood and quite often labeled as deviant and/or deficient. The limitations of this approach, accompanied by numerous contradictory empirical findings, have made drawing conclusions about African Americans and sex-role stereotypes quite difficult. Nevertheless, a few theorists have spoken to the notion of sexrole classification and African Americans (Ani, 1994; HarperBolton, 1982; Lewis, 1975; Nobles, 1974; Peters, 1988; Reid, 1985; T'Shaka, 1995). From these theorists' perspectives on sexrole classification and African Americans, and from the available data on African Americans and sex-role stereotypes, we can begin

Family sex roles and teenager influence in family purchasing: a cross-national study

Family members' perceptions of teenagers' purchase influence were examined in five countries: Senegal, India, Thailand, the US and Sweden. The effect of family sex roles on such perceptions was investigated. Perceptions of teenager's influence were found to differ significantly by country and by sex role category. A similar pattern of teenagers' general influence emerged across these diverse societies, while product-specific influence varied between countries. Managerial implications on communication strategies are provided for international marketing managers seeking to reach cross-national target markets of families with teenage children.

The Role of Critical Experiences in Moral Development: Implications for Justice and Care Orientations

In both a preliminary study and a main study, undergraduate subjects were asked to write an essay describing the one experience they considered as having been the most important in their moral development. In addition, they were asked to (a) rate the extent to which various moral lessons had been learned as a result of the experience and (b) complete the Bern Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bern, 1974). Independent Justice and Care dimensions emerged from factor analyses of subjects' ratings of lessons learned in both the preliminary and main studies. No relation was found between subjects' scores on the two lessons learned factors and their sex-role classification as determined by scores on the BSRI. However, in the main study, women rated themselves as having learned more of a moral lesson reflecting a care orientation from their most important moral experience than did men. Some sex differences were also observed in subjects' tendencies to cite particular experiences as having been most important in their moral development. Furthermore, the extent to which a particular kind of moral lesson was learned from an experience was found to be influenced by the particular type of experience recalled by the subject.

Sex, Sex-Role, and Machiavellianism as Correlates of Decoding Ability

The present study examined the relationships of sex, sex-role and Machiavellianism to the ability to decode adult facial expressions. 80 undergraduates, classified into traditional, cross-sex, androgynous or undifferentiated sex-role categories based on scores on Bern's inventory, were asked to view slides of adults posing different facial expressions and asked to choose which emotion was being expressed. Subjects were given the Machiavellianism V scale to complete. Neither sex nor sex-role significantly influenced decoding ability; however, Machiavellianism was negatively related to the ability to decode facial expressions.

Changes in sexist attitudes toward women during introductory women's and men's studies courses

Sexism toward women scores of university students at the beginning of an introductory women's and men's studies (gender studies) course were compared with sexism levels of the same students at the end of the course and with sexism levels of controls. Differences in sexism levels associated with Bem's sex role categories were investigated. Sexism levels among students in every category, except undifferentiated, were significantly lower at the end of the course, while controls showed no pre/post differences. As expected, males were higher than females both at pretest and at posttest, and sexism in both sex groups decreased significantly by equivalent amounts; but androgynous males in the introductory course were lower in sexism than sex-typed males and androgynous females were lower than sex-typed females. Undifferentiated subjects decreased in sexism least during the course, and cross-typed and androgynous males decreased most. The relationship of sexism to several additional variables not included in formal hypotheses also is discussed. These variables were age, religion, ethnicity, SES, and grade earned in the gender studies course.

Moral judgment and sex role orientation as a function of self and other presentation mode

Gilligan's concern for a negative bias in assessing moral reasoning based on feminine interpersonal orientations and corresponding positive bias in favor of masculine orientations of justice and equity was explored. Bem's Sex Role Inventory provided a psychological index of orientation rather than only biological sex. College men and women completed Rest's moral dilemmas (DIT) in the usual manner-other condition-or assumed the role of the central character-self condition. The latter procedure augmented affective dimensions assumed to underlie orientation differences. Males in the other condition scored higher on the DIT than those in the self condition; females revealed the opposite pattern. Using the sex role categories, it appeared that androgynous males had higher DIT scores in the self condition than in the other condition, in direct contrast to the overall results for males. For females who were androgynous or masculine in orientation, the self condition resulted in higher DIT scores than the other condition. Generally, the greater affective demands in the self condition produced a higher frequency of Stage 3 use for men and women regardless of sex role orientation. The other condition showed a higher percentage of Stage 4 use among males and females independent of sex role orientation. Sex role orientation and affective arousal were discussed in terms of Gilligan's view of moral judgment development.

Assessment of androgyny in children

Androgyny as a sex-role type has been studied extensively in adults but hardly at all in children. In the present study, children in Kindergarten through Grade 2 were administered a sex-role preference test in such a way that masculine and feminine scores could be derived independently. As a test of concurrent validity, the children's masculine and feminine preference scores were correlated with a parent-report measure of sex-typing. Both the child and parent measures showed strong sex differences in the types of stimuli preferred. Significant correlations were found between the parent and child measures for girls, but not for boys. Based on their masculine and feminine scores, children were classified as androgynous, masculine, feminine, or undifferentiated. The "absolute midpoint" method of sex-role classification placed the majority of boys in the masculine category (83%) and the majority of girls in the feminine category (79%); 9% of the boys and 18% of the girls were classified as androgynous. This method of classification yielded results similar to the more commonly used "between-sex" median split procedure, but differed sharply from the "within-sex" median split method, which yielded a more even distribution of children across the four sex-role types. The results were discussed with respect to a number of methodological issues in the measurement of androgyny in children.

Relation of Sex and Sex Role to Adults' Ability to Decode Infants' Emotions

The present study examined the relative contributions of sex and sex role to subjects' ability to recognize infants' emotional expressions. Men and women were classified into traditional, androgynous, and undifferentiated sex-role categories based upon their Bern Sex-role Inventory scores; women with a cross-sex orientation were also included. Subjects judged infants' emotions from a set of slides. Analysis indicated an effect for sex, with women outperforming men. A sex-role effect was also found, with cross-sex women and traditional men exhibiting the best decoding performance; androgynous subjects achieved the lowest decoding scores. Findings support recent ideas regarding the role of masculinity, at least when combined with low femininity scores, in decoding.

Sex-Role Orientation and the Responses of Men to Exercise Stress

Abstract The present investigation was designed to investigate whether males' gender roles mediate their perception of strenuous physical exercise, a stereotypically masculine task. Forty-two college-age males from three sex-role categories (masculine, feminine, and androgynous) performed a bicycle ergometer exercise at comparable work intensities. Results indicated that, in comparison to feminine males, masculine males reported lower physical strain (via general RPEs), while androgynous males had more positive affect and greater endurance. These findings suggest that inadequate experience with cross-gender behaviors may have a greater influence upon perceptions of an activity than the gender inappropriateness of such behavior.

The effect of response style on the validity of the BSRI

The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), one of the most frequently used measures of sex role identity, comprises 60 personal descriptors, of which 20 are classified as masculine, 20 as feminine, and 20 as neutral with respect to sex-role identity. In order to examine possible effects of response tendency on this measure of sex-role identity, 133 students were administered the BSRI and subsequently assigned to sex-role categories (Androgynous, Masculine, Feminine, Undifferentiated) according to the procedures recommended by Bem. Analysis revealed significant differences in the magnitude of neutral, social desirability scores across sex-role categories. Findings support the contention that a response tendency, unrelated to sex-role identity, appears to influence individual self-ratings on the Masculine and Feminine scales of the BSRI and, thus, the assignment of individuals to sex-role category.

The Sex-Role Antecedents Scales

The Sex-role Antecedents Scales were constructed to classify personal and perceived parental sex-role orientations as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. 28 traits are included, 11 masculine, 11 feminine, and 6 neutral, all derived from the Bern Sex-role Inventory. The new test is distinguished by the provision of interpersonal scales featuring mother and father as standards for self-comparison on masculine and feminine traits. Masculinity and femininity were depicted on separate continua shown to be orthogonal, internally consistent, and reliable. Simultaneous classification of self, mother, and father on the scales showed direct consistent relationships between their respective sex-role categories. Self-perceived identification with mother and father significantly distinguished the four sex-role categories of the 150 male and 150 female subjects.

Workaholism, sex, and sex role stereotyping among female professionals

This paper examines the relationship between workaholism, sex, and sex role orientation among professionals. The sample consisted of 86 male and 106 female attorneys, physicians, and psychologists/therapists. Results indicated a significant relationship between sex and sex role stereotyping. Among females, workaholics were grouped exclusively in the sex role categories masculine and androgynous. Implications for counseling include increasing awareness of changing sex role attitudes among professional women and possible role conflict that can occur from integration of work and family.

Androgyny and sex role measurement: A personal construct approach.

Recent research into sex roles has been heavily influenced by androgyny theory, and by the development of the Bern Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bern, 1974). Psychological androgyny is the combination, in one individual, of both culturally defined masculine and feminine personality traits. The Sex-Rep, a new instrument for assessing sex role which is aimed at rectifying certain problems associated with the BSRI, was then described. The Sex-Rep, the BSRI (Bern, 19 34), the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (TSBI; Spence & Stapp, 1974), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI, Beck, 1967), and a self-concept thermometer, were given to 100 male and 108 female undergraduates. Results indicated that the BSRI and the Sex-Rep are both valid sex-role instruments, insofar as they both discriminate between males and females. They tend to measure nonredundant components of sex role as indicated by a lack of overlap between their sex-role classifications. The present study did not find any support for the balance model of androgyny which suggests that high masculinity and high femininity interact by balancing each other to produce a healthier, more behaviorally flexible individual. BSRI masculinity (M) was strongly related to adjustment in both sexes, but BSRI femininity (F) had little impact. This relationship between BSRI M and adjustment was described as probably resulting from measurement artifact since (&) only socially desirable traits are included on the BSRI, (b) removing self-esteem effects from the BSRI M scale enhanced its ability to discriminate between the sexes, (c) Sex-Rep masculinity was not related to adjustment for women, and its linkage to adjustment for men was less strong than BSRI M, (d) women rated their feminine constructs as more desirable than their masculine constructs, and (e) there were no actual self-esteem differences between males and females. Thus, findings from the BSRI regarding the relationship between sex role and adjustment must be called into question. Furthermore, since there is little overlap between genderrelated personal construals and social stereotypes, it is important to discover the effects of personal gender identity on personality and behavior.

Selected Predictors of Responsible Environmental Behavior: An Analysis

Abstract In this study, we examined the relative contribution of eight variables in predicting responsible environmental behavior. Scores on a validated behavior instrument served as the criterion. High and low behavior groups selected from 171 respondents were compared using members of midwestern Sierra Clubs and Elderhostel programs as subjects. Multilinear regression analyses were used to determine the performance of each predictor variable and to ascertain the most parsimonious set of variables that predicts environmental behavior. Seven of eight variables were found to be statistically significant. They were: (1) level of environmental sensitivity, (2) perceived knowledge of environmental action strategies, (3) perceived skill in using environmental action strategies, (4) psychological sex role classification, (5) individual locus of control, (6) group locus of control, and (7) attitude toward pollution. The one nonsignificant variable was (8) belief in technology. Stepwise regression showed that the...

The relationship between sex-role orientation and resolution of eriksonian developmental crises

A total of 139 female and 133 male undergraduates completed the Bem Sex-role Inventory and the Inventory of Psychosocial Development, a measure of resolution of Erikson's developmental crises, in a study designed to assess the relationship between sex roles and psychological adjustment. The results indicated that the androgynous subjects had higher adjustment scores than subjects in the other three sex-role classifications. Further analyses revealed that both the masculinity and femininity components of androgyny were significant predictors of adjustment, reinforcing the suggestion that androgyny is a more optimal sex role. It was also demonstrated that the masculine component of androgyny was associated more strongly with adjustment. The results are discussed in terms of theories of the virtue of an androgynous as opposed to sex-typed sex role.

Sex roles, gender, and fear.

Male and female college students classified as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated on the Bem (1974) Sex Role Inventory (N = 199) were given the Wolpe (1969) Fear Inventory. Significant differences in average fear scores were seen between men and women and between the four sex-role categories, with sex role and gender contributing equally to the variability. The argument is raised here that excessive fearfulness or fearlessness might be as much a product of sex-role conditioning as a product of gender.

Sex Roles, Gender, and Fear

Abstract Male and female college students classified as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated on the Bem (1974) Sex Role Inventory (N = 199) were given the Wolpe (1969) Fear Inventory. Significant differences in average fear scores were seen between men and women and between the four sex-role categories, with sex role and gender contributing equally to the variability. The argument is raised here that excessive fearfulness or fearlessness might be as much a product of sex-role conditioning as a product of gender.