Fetal Sex Ratio Research Articles

Testing secondary sex ratio bias hypotheses in white-tailed deer in Mississippi, USA.

Natural selection favors individuals with the highest inclusive fitness (i.e., total number of descendants). In cases where one sex is more productive, one or both parents may maximize their inclusive fitness by investing in the offspring of the more prolific sex. Such preferential production can lead to skewed sex ratios at various life history stages, including at birth, resulting in secondary sex ratio bias. Several competing hypotheses have been proposed to explain observed variation in secondary sex ratios including Fisher's frequency dependence and two hypotheses related to maternal condition: Trivers-Willard and the local resource hypotheses. Although it has been shown that maternal condition can influence the number of offspring produced in white-tailed deer, there is no consensus as to which of the hypotheses drives sex ratio bias in wild populations. Using a spatiotemporally extensive dataset of pregnant white-tailed deer from Mississippi, USA, we examined fetal sex ratio in relation to the Fisherian frequency-dependence hypothesis and hypotheses related to maternal condition. While there was a male-sex ratio bias in pregnant females that reduced in intensity with the number of offspring, there was no support for condition-related hypotheses. Instead, secondary sex ratios for white-tailed deer in Mississippi were nearly consistent with Fisherian frequency dependence. Our findings add to the body of literature on secondary sex biases in white-tailed deer and help inform sex bias ratios for a southern population of a cervid of management importance in the US.

Sodium molybdate dihydrate does not exhibit developmental or reproductive toxicity in Sprague-Dawley rats maintained on a marginal copper diet

Groups of 24 weanling female Sprague-Dawley rats were administered molybdenum (Mo) as sodium molybdate dihydrate (SMD) in drinking water at target dose levels of 0, 20, or 40 mg Mo/kg bw/day and fed a semi-purified marginal copper (6.2 ppm Cu) AIN-93 G diet for 8 weeks prior to mating, through cohabitation and pregnancy until Gestation Day 21. The objective was to confirm the reproductive and developmental effects of SMD reported by Fungwe et al. (1990) at estimated doses as low as 1.5 mg Mo/kg bw/day in a similarly designed study with marginal Cu diet (6.3 ppm). There were no test material-related effects at 20 or 40 mg Mo/kg bw/day on mortality, clinical observations, body weight, body weight gain, food consumption, estrous cycling, reproductive performance, maternal macroscopic pathology, ovarian or uterine parameters, litter size, resorptions, fetal sex ratio, fetal weight, or external fetal malformations or variations. Water consumption was increased compared to controls at both dose levels during the pre-mating and gestation periods, with no apparent adverse impact. There was no evidence of copper depletion in serum at any dose level. In conclusion, the no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) for systemic, maternal reproductive, and developmental toxicity in this marginal Cu diet study are 40 mg Mo/kg bw/day, consistent with the results of guideline developmental and reproductive toxicity studies of SMD. The results of Fungwe et al. were not replicated, even at higher dose levels of Mo, and their inconsistencies with guideline toxicity studies of Mo are not explained by the marginal dietary Cu level.

Gross and histological features associated with umbilical cord torsion in equine abortions

Equine pregnancy failure can occur throughout gestation, with causes varying by region. In the UK, umbilical cord torsion (UCT) accounted for 44.0% of pregnancy loss (PL) cases occurring after day 70 of gestation and submitted to a diagnostic laboratory. Limited reports on the features of UCT are available. This study aimed to compare the gross and histological features in PLs resulting from UCT to those with no UC pathology. Cases submitted to a UK diagnostic laboratory diagnosed with definitive or suspected UCT (n=81) were compared to PLs diagnosed as not associated with umbilical cord (UC) pathology (nUCT) (n=33). Logistic regression analysis was used for categorical data and Mann-Whitney U tests for non-parametric continuous data. Median gestation age at loss was significantly lower in the UCT (215 days, inter-quartile range (IQR) 32) group compared to nUCT (325 days, IQR 56), p<0.005, with 83.5% of the UCT abortions occurring prior to day 240 of gestation compared to 10.3% of the nUCT cases. The median fetal weight in the UCT group was significantly lighter than the nUCT group, 11.0kg (IQR 6.4) and 45.4kg (IQR 22.5) respectively, remaining after adjustment for gestational age (p<0.005). The UCT group had a significantly longer median total UC length (UCL) (79cm, IQR 19, p<0.001) and amniotic UCL (45cm, IQR 14, p<0.001) but not allantoic UCL (p=0.32) compared tothe nUCT group (total UCL 61cm, IQR 22 and amniotic UCL 27.5cm, IQR 13). A 7.3-fold (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.9-18.2) increase in the risk of UCT diagnosis was identified when the amniotic:allantoic UCL ratio was >1. There was no significant difference in the fetal sex ratio between the two groups (p=0.79). Seven gross features were associated with UCT diagnosis (p<0.05), with reddening of the chorioallantois leading to the greatest increase in the odds of UCT diagnosis (OR 17.4, 95% CI 5.7, 53.4). Histological assessment of the chorioallantois in a subset of cases (46 UCT and 31 nUCT) identified three features associated with UCT diagnosis: autolysis, villous mineralisation and villous karyorrhexis (p<0.001). No UCT cases (0/46) exhibited a significant inflammatory infiltrate in the chorioallantois, compared to 9/31 cases of nUCT. The presence of karyorrhexis and mineralisation likely reflects ischaemic injury resulting from malperfusion of the chorion, in the case of UCT, as a response to episodes of venous stasis following increased vascular resistance associated with the significant increase in UCL and/or vascular obstruction. Collectively, this suggests a more chronic pathophysiology involving lengthening of the amniotic, not allantoic, UC. Identification of these features enables evidence-based refinement of diagnostic criteria for UCT, which can now undergo consultation to reach a universally accepted consensus.

Reproductive performance and sex ratio adjustment of the wild boar (Sus scrofa) in South Korea

The wild boar (Sus scrofa), a polygynous species, rapidly expanded its geographical range and increased its population size in South Korea following the extinction of large carnivores and changes to rural environments. Understanding wild boar reproductive traits and strategies is essential for their effective management; however, studies in this area are lacking. Using samples collected from hunting bags, the relationships between 1) litter size and female weight and 2) fetal sex ratio and female body condition were examined to understand wild boar life-history strategies. Wild boars showed a seasonal breeding pattern that maximized reproduction. Litter size (mean = 5.7 ± 1.7) was correlated with female weight, whereas fetal sex ratio was not explained by female body condition. However, the heaviest ranked fetuses within the litters were male-biased. Wild boars aged three years or less accounted for 90% of the total population, and sexual dimorphism developed from two years of age. Considering that their reproductive strategy is more effective (i.e., early gestation and large litter size) than that of other polygynous species, the Trivers–Willard model was not supported for the wild boars in this study. Instead, females adjusted the sex of the heaviest fetus in the litter to maximize lifetime reproductive success.

The Ethanolic Extract of Gomphrena celosioides Mart. Does Not Alter Reproductive Performance or Embryo-Fetal Development, nor Does It Cause Chromosomal Damage.

Gomphrena celosioides is a native Brazilian plant found in the State of Mato Grosso do Sul. It is used in folk medicine to treat kidney diseases, skin diseases, infections, rheumatism, gastrointestinal diseases, and respiratory diseases. It is also used as an abortifacient. To evaluate the effects of the ethanolic extract of Gomphrena celosioides (EEGc) on reproductive performance, embryo development, and chromosome stability, Swiss mice were randomly divided into experimental groups (n = 10). The animals in the control group received the vehicle Tween 80-1% in the proportion of 0.1 mL/10 g of body weight orally, from the first to the 18th gestational day. The animals in the treatment groups received the EEGc (100, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg) from the first to the 18th gestational day. The animals underwent evaluations of their reproductive performance and embryofetal development. The results showed that the EEGc did not change the animals' final weight, weight gain, uterine weight, or net weight gain. The evaluation showed that the absolute and relative organs' weights did not vary between the different experimental groups. In addition, the EEGc did not change the numbers of implants, live fetuses, dead fetuses, or fetal resorptions. There were no differences in post-operative loss rates, implantations, or resorptions, nor were there differences in fetal viability or sex ratio. The use of the EEGc did not result in different frequencies of malformations. In addition, the EEGc did not alter the frequency of chromosomal damage or frequency of micronuclei. Based on our findings, we considered the extract of Gomphrena celosioides to be safe for use during pregnancy, although some parameters indicated caution in its use.

Evaluation of foetal wastage and incidence of gross foetal and uterine abnormalities in goats at Gujungu slaughterhouse, Jigawa State

This study was designed to evaluate foetal wastage, associated economic loss and incidence of gross foetal and uterine abnormalities in goats (does) slaughtered at Gujungu slaughterhouse, Jigawa state, Nigeria. The studies were carried out within six months (January-June, 2021). A total of 1,899 does were slaughtered over the study period, out of which 642 (33.8 %) were pregnant and 62 % of the pregnancies were in the second trimester. Nine hundred and eighty-one (981) foetuses were recovered from the gravid does of which 32 % (n=315) were singletons while 64.6 % (n=634) were twins. Triplets and quadruplets foetuses constituted 2.5 % (n=24) and 0.8 % (n=8) of the foetuses wasted respectively. Incidence rates of gross foetal and uterine abnormalities were hydrometra (2.0 %); mucometra (1.2 %); pyometra (2.3%), foetal emphysema (0.05 %), foetal mummification (0.1 %) and foetal maceration (0.2%).The overall incidence rate of the foetal gross abnormalities recorded was 5.85 %. The mean monthly rate of foetal wastage (38%) and the foetal sex ratio (F 56.4: M 43.6) were used in the economic analysis for estimation of the foetal loss in monetary terms. The estimated loss was N6, 979,000 ($18,145.4USD) for six months period or N13, 958,000 ($36,290.8 USD) per annum, which is worrisome because such practice may impact negatively on the livelihood of the various stakeholders along goat value chain by drastically reducing the future productive herd at the study area. Adequate ante mortem inspection of does for detection of pregnancies and reinforcement of the legislation against the indiscriminate slaughter of gravid animals at the slaughterhouse should be enforced. Public education on proper management and breeding practices to reduce the incidence of diseases of infertility in does should be advocated.

Evaluation of foetal wastage and incidence of gross foetal and uterine abnormalities in goats at Gujungu slaughterhouse, Jigawa State

This study was designed to evaluate foetal wastage, associated economic loss and incidence of gross foetal and uterine abnormalities in goats (does) slaughtered at Gujungu slaughter house, Jigawa state, Nigeria. The studies were carried out within six months (January-June, 2021). A total of 1,899 does were slaughtered over the study period, out of which 642 (33.8 %) were pregnant and 62 % of the pregnancies were in the second trimester. Nine hundred and eighty-one (981) foetuses were recovered from the gravid does of which 32 % (n=315) were singletons while 64.6 % (n=634) were twins. Triplets and quadruplets foetuses constituted 2.5 % (n=24) and 0.8 % (n=8) of the foetuses wasted respectively. Incidence rates of gross foetal and uterine abnormalities were hydrometra (2.0 %); mucometra (1.2 %); pyometra (2.3%), foetal emphysema (0.05 %), foetal mummification (0.1 %) and foetal maceration (0.2%).The overall incidence rate of the foetal gross abnormalities recorded was 5.85 %. The mean monthly rate of foetal wastage (38%) and the foetal sex ratio (F 56.4: M 43.6) were used in the economic analysis for estimation of the foetal loss in monetary terms. The estimated loss was N6, 979,000 ($18,145.4USD) for six months period or N13, 958,000 ($36,290.8 USD) per annum, which is worrisome because such practice may impact negatively on the livelihood of the various stakeholders along goat value chain by drastically reducing the future productive herd at the study area. Adequate ante mortem inspection of does for detection of pregnancies and reinforcement of the legislation against the indiscriminate slaughter of gravid animals at the slaughterhouse should be enforced. Public education on proper management and breeding practices to reduce the incidence of diseases of infertility in does should be advocated.

The impact of maternal infection with chronic wasting disease on fetal characteristics in wild white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Illinois, USA

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease of cervids caused by a misfolded and infectious protein, called a prion. Infection with CWD is characterized by an asymptomatic period, followed by a decline that inevitably leads to death. The disease is transmitted mainly through direct contact between infected and uninfected animals, but vertical transmission has been documented in muntjac deer ( Muntiacus reevesi ), along with the presence of infectious prions in the reproductive tissues of elk ( Cervus canadensis ) and white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ). Therefore, questions have been raised about the effects of CWD on the health and characteristics of the offspring gestated by infected animals, and about how vertical transmission may complicate disease management efforts and drive reduction of herd fitness. To begin finding quantitative answers to these questions, this study used multilevel Bayesian linear regression to model the influence of maternal infection with CWD, along with several other environmental and biological variables, on fetal weight, sex, and length using data collected on white-tailed deer as part of the CWD management program in Illinois for the time period between fiscal years 2003 and 2020. The regression analyses found no statistically significant relationship between maternal CWD status and fetal length or the fraction of males in a litter but did find a significant relationship between maternal infection and fetal weight. Fetuses of CWD positive deer weighed 1% less than fetuses from deer in which CWD was not detected. Given that 88% of the fetuses in this data were in the second trimester of gestation, the impact of CWD on fetuses through the entire course of gestation remains to be evaluated. • Fetal weights in the second trimester were 1% lower in CWD positive female deer • Fetal length showed no significant relationship with maternal CWD infection • Fetal sex ratios were 1:1 regardless of maternal CWD infection status

Unisex vs sex-specific estimated fetal weight charts for fetal growth monitoring: a population-based study

In contrast with birthweight or other growth charts, a feature of most intrauterine charts is that they are not differentiated by sex. Differences in weight by sex during pregnancy are considered to be relatively minor; however, small systematic differences may affect the sensitivity and specificity of screening for fetuses with growth restriction. To assess differences between unisex and sex-specific estimated fetal weight charts at the third-trimester ultrasound with regard to the sex ratio of fetuses detected with an estimated fetal weight <10th percentile and subsequent detection of small-for-gestational-age newborns with morbidity at birth. The study included 9940 singleton live births from a French population-based study in 2016. Main outcomes were an estimated fetal weight <10th percentile at the routine third-trimester ultrasound between 30 and 35 weeks of gestation, and small for gestational age infants (birthweight <10th percentile) with neonatal morbidity (Apgar score <7 at 5 minutes and/or resuscitation in delivery room and/or admission to a neonatal unit). We used 2 charts with unisex and sex-specific options: the World Health Organization international standard chart and a customized chart for fetal sex based on Gardosi's gestation-related optimal weight model adapted to the French population (Epopé). Hadlock's unisex chart, commonly used in clinical care and research, was also included to provide an external reference. We compared the proportions of female and male fetuses with an estimated fetal weight <10th percentile and the sensitivity and specificity of such estimated fetal weight for predicting small-for-gestational-age newborns with morbidity when using unisex vs sex-specific charts, overall and by sex. Among all singleton births, there were 51.6% males and 48.4% females. Males faced higher risks of being small-for-gestational-age with morbidity at birth (2.4% vs 1.8%; P=.031). Using the World Health Organization unisex chart, 6.9% of males and 9.9% of females had an estimated fetal weight <10th percentile vs 9.9% of males and 7.1% of females with the sex-specific chart; these proportions were 3.5% and 4.6% and 4.3% and 2.7%, respectively, for the Epopé. Proportions of estimated fetal weight <10th percentile using Hadlock's chart were slightly higher than those obtained using the unisex World Health Organization chart (7.5% of males and 10.6% of females), but the difference of about 3% was the same. The sensitivity of an estimated fetal weight <10th percentile for identifying small-for-gestational-age newborns with morbidity differed for males and females by type of chart; unisex charts detected more small-for-gestational-age females with morbidity and sex-specific charts detected more small-for-gestational-age males with morbidity, but the overall sensitivity was the same (49.1% for the World Health Organization chart and Hadlock's chart and 34.9% for the Epopé chart). This study suggests that the use of sex-specific charts instead of unisex charts would reduce sex bias in intrauterine growth screening during the third trimester of pregnancy. Prospective studies are needed to assess the effects of using sex-specific charts rather than unisex charts on obstetrical management and outcomes.

Developmental chronodisruption alters placental signaling in mice.

Chronodisruption has been largely overlooked as a developmental exposure. The placenta, a conduit between the maternal and fetal environments, may relay circadian cues to the fetus. We have previously shown that developmental chronodisruption causes visual impairment and increased retinal microglial and macrophage marker expression. Here, we investigated the impacts of environmental chronodisruption on fetal and placental outcomes in a C57BL/6J mouse (Mus musculus) model. Developmental chronodisruption had no effect on embryo count, placental weight, or fetal sex ratio. When measured with RNAseq, mice exposed to developmental chronodisruption (CD) had differential placental expression of several transcripts including Serpinf1, which encodes pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF). Immunofluorescence of microglia/macrophage markers, Iba1 and CD11b, also revealed significant upregulation of immune cell markers in CD-exposed placenta. Our results suggest that in utero chronodisruption enhances placental immune cell expression, potentially programming a pro-inflammatory tissue environment.

Catechol-O-methyltransferase and Pregnancy Outcome: an Appraisal in Rat.

Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) has been shown to be a key regulator of pregnancy outcomes in mouse, and its deficiency is causative in the development of a preeclampsia-like disease process. Preeclampsia is a human pregnancy disorder associated with failure of intrauterine trophoblast cell invasion and trophoblast-guided uterine spiral artery remodeling, which are not well-developed in mouse. The purpose of this study was to investigate COMT in rat, a species with deep intrauterine trophoblast invasion. To accomplish this task, we used clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/Cas9-mediated genome editing of the rat Comt gene. A Comt null rat model was established and its fertility characterized. Comt null male and female rats were viable and fertile. COMT deficiency did not significantly impact pregnancy outcomes, including litter size, placental and fetal weights, Mendelian and sex ratios, or pregnancy-dependent adaptations to hypoxia. Collectively, our findings indicate that pregnancy-associated phenotypic outcomes of COMT deficiency are not equivalent in mouse and rat. In rat, COMT is not required for a successful pregnancy outcome.

Short communication: Effect of timing of induction of ovulation relative to timed artificial insemination using sexed semen on pregnancy outcomes in primiparous Holstein cows

Our objective was to determine the effect of increasing the interval from induction of ovulation to timed artificial insemination (TAI) on fertility by decreasing the interval from TAI to ovulation using sexed semen within a synchronized breeding program. Our hypothesis was that induction of ovulation earlier relative to TAI would increase pregnancies per artificial insemination (P/AI). Primiparous Holstein cows from 3 commercial dairy farms in the United States were submitted to a Double-Ovsynch protocol for first service as follows: Pre-Ovsynch (GnRH; 7 d, PGF2α; 3 d, GnRH), followed 7 d later by Breeding-Ovsynch [GnRH (G1); 7 d, PGF2α; 24 h, PGF2α], followed by the last GnRH treatment (G2), which varied between treatments, and TAI. To vary the interval between G2 and TAI, cows were randomized to 2 treatments to receive G2 either 16 (G2-16; n = 373) or 24 (G2-24; n = 357) h before TAI, which was fixed at 48 h after the second PGF2α treatment of the Breeding-Ovsynch portion of the protocol. All cows were inseminated with sexed semen, and each herd used sires of their choosing, which were randomly allocated between treatments. Pregnancy diagnosis was conducted by herd veterinarians using transrectal ultrasonography. In disagreement with our hypothesis, G2-24 cows had fewer P/AI than G2-16 cows at 34 ± 3 d (44 vs. 50%) and 80 ± 17 d (41 vs. 48%) after TAI. Pregnancy loss (5 vs. 6%) and fetal sex ratio (92:8 vs. 90:10, female:male) did not differ between treatments for G2-16 and G2-24 cows, respectively. Thus, we reject our hypothesis and conclude that induction of ovulation earlier relative to TAI with sexed semen for first service after a Double-Ovsynch protocol decreased P/AI in primiparous Holstein cows.

Fetal Head Growth during Early to Mid-Gestation Associated with Weight Gain in Mothers with Hyperemesis Gravidarum: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

The epigenetic impact of malnutrition in mothers with hyperemesis gravidarum (HG) on their offspring has not been fully elucidated. Recently, several reports have demonstrated that children born to mothers with HG were small for gestational age and had low birth weight, reduced insulin sensitivity, and neurodevelopmental delays during childhood. Therefore, we examined the relationship between fetal growth and changes in the maternal body weight in HG cases. A total of 34 patients with HG were hospitalized and delivered at term between 2009 and 2012. The records of 69 cases of pregnant women without a history of HG were extracted after matching their maternal age, parity, pregestational body mass index (BMI), gestational age, and fetal sex ratio with those of the HG group for comparison. The maternal weight gain at term was less in the HG than in the control group. There was no statistical difference in birth weight, placental weight, and ultrasonic fetometric parameters expressed in standard deviation (SD) scores, including biparietal diameter, abdominal circumference, and femur length, between the HG and the control group. Whereas fetal head growth in the HG group was positively associated with maternal weight gain at 20 weeks of gestation only, this association was not observed in the control group. We herein demonstrate that maternal weight gain from the nadir is associated with fetal head growth at mid-gestation. Thus, maternal undernutrition in the first trimester of pregnancy could affect fetal brain growth and development, leading to an increased risk of neurodevelopmental delays in later life.

Dermal exposure to the UV filter benzophenone-3 during early pregnancy affects fetal growth and sex ratio of the progeny in mice.

The aim of this study was to analyze whether dermal exposure to benzophenone 3 (BP-3) during pregnancy affects critical parameters of pregnancy, and whether this exposure may affect the outcome of a second pregnancy in mice. Pregnant mice were exposed to 50-mg BP-3/kg body weight/day or olive oil (vehicle) from gestation day (gd) 0 to gd6 by dermal exposure. High-frequency ultrasound imaging was used to follow up fetal and placental growth in vivo. Blood flow parameters in uterine and umbilical arteries were analyzed by Doppler measurements. Mice were killed at gd5, gd10, and gd14 on the first pregnancy, and at gd10 and 14 on the second pregnancy. The weight of the first and second progenies was recorded, and sex ratio was analyzed. BP-3 levels were analyzed in serum and amniotic fluid. BP-3 reduced the fetal weight at gd14 and feto-placenta index of first pregnancy, with 16.13% of fetuses under the 5th percentile; arteria uterina parameters showed altered pattern at gd10. BP-3 was detected in serum 4h after the exposure at gd6, and in amniotic fluid at gd14. Offspring weight of first progeny was lower in BP-3 group. Placenta weights of BP-3 group were decreased in second pregnancy. First and second progenies of mothers exposed to BP-3 showed a higher percentage of females (female sex ratio). Dermal exposure to low dose of BP-3 during early pregnancy resulted in an intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) phenotype, disturbed sex ratio and alterations in the growth curve of the offspring in mouse model.

Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes of artificial oocyte activation in patients undergoing frozen-thawed embryo transfer: a 6-year population-based retrospective study.

To evaluate the impact of artificial oocyte activation (AOA) in pregnancy and neonatal outcomes in infertile patients undergoing cryopreserved embryo transfer. This retrospective study included 5686 patients' transferred embryos from routine intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) and 194 patients' transferred embryos from ICSI combined with AOA (ICSI-AOA) from January 2011 to December 2016. Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes of couples undergoing routine ICSI or ICSI-AOA were analyzed before and after propensity score matching. Artificial oocyte activation was performed with ionomycin. The pregnancy outcomes showed no significant difference in the rates of biochemical pregnancy, clinical pregnancy, implantation, miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, multiple pregnancy, and live births between the routine ICSI and ICSI-AOA groups before and after propensity score matching, respectively. The assessment of neonatal outcomes showed no statistically significant differences in the birth defect rate, birth weight, gestational age, preterm birth rate, early-neonatal death rate, and fetal sex ratio between the two groups, and similar results were also observed in the two matched cohorts. Artificial oocyte activation with ionomycin does not adversely affect pregnancy and neonatal outcomes in patients undergoing frozen-thawed embryo transfer, which is beneficial to clinicians counseling patients on the risks of artificial oocyte activation.

Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes of infertile patients undergoing frozen-thawed embryo transfer after artificial oocyte activation: a six-year population-based retrospective study

To evaluate the clinical outcomes and safety of artificial oocyte activation (AOA) in patients with frozen-thawed embryo transfer (FET). This was a retrospective single-center cohort study from January 2011 to December 2016. A total of 6806 patients of FET were divided into two cohorts: (1) routine ICSI group includes 6605 patients transferred embryos from ICSI. (2) ICSI-AOA group includes 201 patients transferred embryos from ICSI combined with AOA. Data were collected from the first FET cycle of each patient. All participants provided informed consent after receiving counseling concerning infertility treatments. Based on the published literatures, patient treated with AOA according to the following criteria: (1) ICSI fertilization rate ≤50 (in-house and out-house cases); (2) good quality embryo rate ≤30% (in-house and out-house cases); (3) severe oligoasthenoteratozoospermia or teratozoospermia; and (4) testicular sperm aspiration (TESA) or percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA). AOA was performed by exposure to 10 μM of ionomycin for 10 minutes after 1 hour of ICSI. The procedures of ovarian stimulation, ICSI, embryo assessment, freezing, and thawing, endometrial preparation, and FET have been described in previous studies The Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes were assessed according to the terms defined based on the International Committee for Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technology and the World Health Organization revised glossary of ART terminology. Compare differences of rates were performed by the Chi-square test or Fisher's exact test as appropriate. Compare differences in mean values were performed by Student’s t-test. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The pregnancy outcome in two cohorts of 6605 patients with routine ICSI and 201 patients with ICSI-AOA showed no statistically significant difference in the rates of clinical pregnancy, implantation, abortion, ectopic pregnancy, multiples pregnancy and live birth. Moreover, when compared to the neonatal outcomes, no statistically significant differences were found in the birth defect rate, birth weight, low birth weight rate, birth length, gestational age, and fetal sex ratio among 3213 babies and 93 babies born from routine ICSI group and ICSI-AOA group, respectively. The application of AOA in specific infertile patients could yield comparable FET pregnancy and neonatal outcomes to patients with routine ICSI. Moreover, AOA with ionomycin does not increase the risk of birth defects for the offspring born from FET. This is the first clinical outcome and safety assessment of AOA on FET patients in a large retrospective cohort.Tabled 1Table 1The pregnancy outcomes of FET cycles between routine ICSI and ICSI-AOA patientsOutcomesRoutine ICSIICSI-AOAP valueClinical pregnancy rate(%)47.72(3152/6605)47.26(95/201)0.898Implantation rate(%)32.48(4010/12346)32.60(118/362)0.963Miscarriage(%) rate14.94(471/3152)16.84(16/95)0.609Ectopic pregnancy rate (%)1.43(45/3152)2.11(2/95)0.913Live birth rate (%)39.20(2589/6605)37.31(75/201)0.59Multiples birth rate(%)24.10(624/2589)24.00(18/75)0.984No. of children321393Birth Weight (g)3018.4±624.73019.6±605.60.986Body Gestational age (weeks)37.99±2.0137.92±2.410.78Gender (male/female)1614/159943/500.447Live birth defect rate(%)1.21%(39/3213)1.08%(1/93)0.904 Open table in a new tab

Reproductive Ecology of Recently Established Wild Pigs in Canada

An essential component of management efforts to control invasive species is the estimate of life history parameters, such as reproductive rate and litter size. Wild pigs (Sus scrofa), one of the most invasive terrestrial mammals worldwide, have recently become established on the Canadian prairies. We estimated life history traits in a population of wild pigs in Saskatchewan, Canada, at the current northern limit of their North American distribution. The average pregnant wild pig weighed 73.8 kg (46 – 130 kg; n = 7). Fifty-four percent of females ≥46 kg were pregnant in Feb., with an average of 5.6 fetuses per pregnant female (range 4 – 7; n = 7). Although small sample sizes precluded statistical significance, we found that larger females in better body condition tended to have more fetuses and that the sex ratio of fetuses tended to be female-biased. Based on the cohort that we sampled in Feb., we predicted parturition would occur between Feb. and May; this range of parturition dates may have been wider had we sampled wild pigs at other times of the year. We show that the number of fetuses of wild pigs in Saskatchewan is similar to other areas, suggesting that population growth and spread could be just as rapid. Our estimates represent the first empirical life history measures of wild pigs in Canada and are an essential step in developing science-based eradication plans for this highly invasive species.

Oral reproductive and developmental toxicity of Lignosus rhinocerotis mycelium in rat

Ethnopharmacological relevanceLignosus rhinocerotis (L. rhinocerotis), also known as the tiger milk mushroom, is widely used as traditional medicine and as soup ingredient in Malaysia and Hong Kong. It is edible and is used traditionally for the treatment of fever, cough, asthma, wounds, chronic hepatitis, gastric ulcers and cancers. In view of its safety profile, little information is found in scientific literature. The objective of this study is to investigate developmental toxicity of L. rhinocerotis in pregnant Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Materials and methodsEighty pregnant SD female rats were used in this study for three treatment groups and a control group, each consisting of 20 pregnant female rats. Three doses of 850mg/kg/day (Low-dose), 1700mg/kg/day (Mid-dose) and 3400mg/kg/day (High-dose) were selected for the study, whereas 10mL/kg distilled water was served as the control. Examinations were conducted on pregnant rats and fetuses respects to mortality, body weight, body weights gains, food consumption and clinical observations. The pregnant females were gross necropsied on G20, followed by maternal and fetus examination, to evaluate the teratogenicity, reproductive and developmental performance of L. rhinocerotis mycelium. ResultsResults showed that no L. rhinocerotis mycelium-related animal death and abnormal clinical sign were noted. No statistical differences were noted in maternal mean body weight and maternal mean body weight gains. Some animals in the high-dose group appeared audible respiration due to dosing accident, it resulted in lower food consumption but not relevant to L. rhinocerotis mycelium treatment. In maternal gross necropsy, no L. rhinocerotis mycelium-related gross lesion was noted. In maternal examination, parameters of gravid uterus weight, implantation number, corpora lutea number, litter size, live or dead fetal number, male or female fetus number, resorption number, fetal sex ratio (M/F), pre-implantation loss and post-implantation loss were all within the normal reference ranges and showed no significant difference when compared to the control group. In fetus examination, including external, visceral and skeletal evaluations, there were no significant changes between any of the L. rhinocerotis mycelium treated groups and the control group. ConclusionsBased on the study results, the no-observable-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for pregnant female rats under the conditions of this study was 3400mg/kg/day.

Combining genetic structure and demographic analyses to estimate persistence in endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium)

Recent improvements in genetic analyses have paved the way in using molecular data to answer questions regarding evolutionary history, genetic structure, and demography. Key deer are a federally endangered subspecies assumed to be genetically unique, homogeneous, and have a female-biased population of approximately 900 deer. We used 985 bp of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and 12 microsatellite loci to test two hypotheses: (1) that Key deer are isolated and have reduced diversity compared to mainland deer and (2) that isolation of the Florida Keys has led to a small population size and a high risk of extinction. Our results indicate that Key deer are indeed genetically isolated from mainland white-tailed deer and that there is a lack of genetic substructure between islands. While Key deer exhibit reduced levels of genetic diversity compared to their mainland counterparts, they contain enough diversity to uniquely identify individual deer. Based on genetic identification, we estimated a census size of around 1000 individuals with a heavily skewed female-biased adult sex ratio. Furthermore, our genetic and contemporary demographic data were used to generate a species persistence model of the Key deer. Sensitivity tests within the population viability analysis brought to light the importance of fetal sex ratio and female survival as the primary factors at risk of driving the subspecies to extinction. This study serves as a prime example of how persistence models can be used to evaluate population viability in natural populations of endangered organisms.

Reproductive characteristics of female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the Midwestern USA

Knowledge of reproductive characteristics of wild populations is necessary to inform responsible management decisions that promote herd health. As management, goals, and free-ranging populations change over time and landscapes, updated knowledge of reproductive characteristics are needed to inform responsible management practices. We estimated reproductive characteristics of female white-tailed deer in Illinois, including pregnancy rate, litter size, fetal growth and fetal sex ratio. We found maternal age to have an important influence on several reproductive factors. Approximately 66% of tested females (n = 3884) were pregnant and pregnancy rates increased with increasing maternal age, from 20.5% in fawns to 85.8% in adult deer. Litter size ranged from 1 to 5 fetuses per pregnant female. The average litter size was 1.9 ± 0.54 fetuses per pregnant female and also increased with age, from 1.2 in fawns to 2.0 in adults, respectively. Breeding season peaked in November with the mean estimated conception dates of fetuses varying with maternal age. Fawns conceived fetuses later in the breeding season (December 2) compared to yearlings and adults (November 11 and 8, respectively). We measured the body mass index (BMI) of all fetuses and found that litter size and female age influence fetal size. We found no bias in fetal sex ratio (average 1.0:1.0, male:female) but we observed a sex bias in fetal size (mean BMI male = 0.71, female 0.67) across all maternal age classes. A comparison of the current study and previous reports indicate that variation in maternal age within a population is an important driver of reproductive metrics, likely because maternal age and body size or condition are related. Furthermore, variation in resource availability will influence reproductive rates, especially among fawn females.