Sex Differences In Mental Health Research Articles

Changes in sex differences in mental health over time: the moderating effects of educational status and loneliness

Background Limited evidence exists regarding how sex differences in mental health are changing over time, especially in the context of recent health and economic adversities. Aims To examine the temporal shifts in mental health issues among males and females, and explore the influence of education and loneliness on these trends. Methods Data were utilized from the 2020 to 2023 Monitor study, a repeated cross-sectional survey of adults 18 years and older in Ontario, Canada. The study employed a Qualtrics-based web panel survey (n = 5,317). Mental health was assessed using Kessler-6 questionnaire, and analyses were performed using Generalized Linear Model (GLM) with gamma distribution. Results The results showed that there was a significant three-way interaction effect between sex, time and education with psychological distress (p = 0.014), suggesting that psychological distress increased between 2020 and 2023 among males who had less than college education. However, it remained stable among males with college/university degrees and females overall. Interaction between sex and feeling lonely on psychological distress was also evident (p = 0.004). Conclusions Mental health issues remained a significant public health challenge among adults, especially psychological distress increasing among males with less than a college education. This underscores the importance of targeted interventions addressing males’ mental health.

Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: the importance of social support in midlife women

Objective This study aimed to examine sex differences in factors associated with mood and anxiety in midlife men and women during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods During a remote visit, 312 adults aged 40–60 years (167 female; 23.6% perimenopausal) from the Human Connectome Project in Aging completed PROMIS measures of depression, anxiety and anger/irritability; perceived stress; and questions about social support, financial stress and menopause stage. Multivariate linear regression models assessed sex differences in mental health and the association of social support, financial stress and menopause stage with mental health. Results Anxiety was higher in women than in men (b = 2.39, p = 0.02). For women only, decreased social support was associated with increased anxiety (b = −2.26, p = 0.002), anger/irritability (b = −1.89, p = 0.02) and stress (b = −1.67, p = 0.002). For women only, not having close family was associated with increased depressive symptoms (b = −6.60, p = 0.01) and stress (b = −7.03, p < 0.001). For both sexes, having children was associated with lower depressive symptoms (b = −3.08, p = 0.002), anxiety (b = −1.93, p = 0.07), anger/irritability (b = −2.73, p = 0.02) and stress (b = −1.44, p = 0.07). Menopause stage was unrelated to mental health. Conclusion Social support, but not financial stress, influenced mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic at midlife, particularly for women.

Sex differences in distribution and identity of aromatase gene expressing cells in the young adult rat brain

BackgroundAromatase catalyzes the synthesis of estrogens from androgens. Knowledge on its regional expression in the brain is of relevance to the behavioral implications of these hormones that might be linked to sex differences in mental health. The present study investigated the distribution of cells expressing the aromatase coding gene (Cyp19a1) in limbic regions of young adult rats of both sexes, and characterized the cell types expressing this gene.MethodsCyp19a1 mRNA was mapped using fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). Co-expression with specific cell markers was assessed with double FISH; glutamatergic, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic, glial, monoaminergic, as well as interneuron markers were tested. Automated quantification of the cells expressing the different genes was performed using CellProfiler. Sex differences in the number of cells expressing Cyp19a1 was tested non-parametrically, with the effect size indicated by the rank-biserial correlation. FDR correction for multiple testing was applied.ResultsIn the male brain, the highest percentage of Cyp19a1+ cells was found in the medial amygdaloid nucleus and the bed nucleus of stria terminalis, followed by the medial preoptic area, the CA2/3 fields of the hippocampus, the cortical amygdaloid nucleus and the amygdalo-hippocampal area. A lower percentage was detected in the caudate putamen, the nucleus accumbens, and the ventromedial hypothalamus. In females, the distribution of Cyp19a1+ cells was similar but at a lower percentage. In most regions, the majority of Cyp19a1+ cells were GABAergic, except for in the cortical-like regions of the amygdala where most were glutamatergic. A smaller fraction of cells co-expressed Slc1a3, suggesting expression of Cyp19a1 in astrocytes; monoaminergic markers were not co-expressed. Moreover, sex differences were detected regarding the identity of Cyp19a1+ cells.ConclusionsFemales show overall a lower number of cells expressing Cyp19a1 in the limbic brain. In both sexes, aromatase is expressed in a region-specific manner in GABAergic and glutamatergic neurons. These findings call for investigations of the relevance of sex-specific and region-dependent expression of Cyp19a1 in the limbic brain to sex differences in behavior and mental health.

Restructuring of amygdala subregion apportion across adolescence

Total amygdala volumes develop in association with sex and puberty, and postmortem studies find neuronal numbers increase in a nuclei specific fashion across development. Thus, amygdala subregions and composition may evolve with age. Our goal was to examine if amygdala subregion absolute volumes and/or relative proportion varies as a function of age, sex, or puberty in a large sample of typically developing adolescents (N = 408, 43 % female, 10–17 years). Utilizing the in vivo CIT168 atlas, we quantified 9 subregions and implemented Generalized Additive Mixed Models to capture potential non-linear associations with age and pubertal status between sexes. Only males showed significant age associations with the basolateral ventral and paralaminar subdivision (BLVPL), central nucleus (CEN), and amygdala transition area (ATA). Again, only males showed relative differences in the proportion of the BLVPL, CEN, ATA, along with lateral (LA) and amygdalostriatal transition area (ASTA), with age. Using a best-fit modeling approach, age, and not puberty, was found to drive these associations. The results suggest that amygdala subregions show unique variations with age in males across adolescence. Future research is warranted to determine if our findings may contribute to sex differences in mental health that emerge across adolescence.

Sex differences in mental health among older adults: investigating time trends and possible risk groups with regard to age, educational level and ethnicity

Objectives Older women report lower mental health compared to men, yet little is known about the nature of this sex difference. Therefore, this study investigates time trends and possible risk groups. Method Data from the Doetinchem Cohort Study (DCS) and the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (LASA) were used. General mental health was assessed every 5 years, from 1995 to 1998 onwards (DCS, n = 1412, 20-year follow-up, baseline age 55–64 years). Depressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed for two birth cohorts, from 1992/1993 onwards (LASA cohort 1, n = 967, 24-year follow-up, age 55-65 years,) and 2002/2003 onwards (LASA cohort 2, n = 1002, 12-year follow-up, age 55–65 years) with follow-up measurements every 3–4 years. Results Mixed model analyses showed that older women had a worse general mental health (−6.95; −8.36 to 5.53; range 0–100, ∼10% lower), more depressive symptoms (2.09; 1.53–2.63; range 0-60, ∼30% more) and more anxiety symptoms (0.86; 0.54–1.18; range 0–11, ∼30% more) compared to men. These sex differences remained stable until the age of 75 years, where after they decreased due to an accelerated decline in mental health for men compared to women. Sex differences and their course by age were consistent over successive birth cohorts, educational levels and ethnic groups (Caucasian vs. Turkish/Moroccan). Conclusion There is a consistent female disadvantage in mental health across different sociodemographic groups and over decennia (1992 vs. 2002) with no specific risk groups.

Forced migration experiences, mental well-being, and nail cortisol among recently settled refugees in Serbia.

Refugees are exposed to a wide breadth of traumatic and psychosocially stressful experiences that have long-term implications for their health and resilience. Most prior research on this topic has focused on long-settled refugee populations, as opposed to those who find themselves in more intermittent transitional stages of the forced migration process. Specifically, few studies have explored how refugees' experiences during their recently completed journeys correlate with their mental well-being or physiological profiles that are responsive to psychosocial stress and trauma. Using data from recently settled refugees in Serbia (n=111), our study helps address this existing gap by examining the associations between refugees' experiences during their arduous journeys, fingernail cortisol concentrations (CORT), and self-reports of psychosocial stress and PTSD symptomology. We found that refugees who reported experiencing longer journeys had higher recent perceived stress as well as poorer well-being and physical health. Refugees who experienced trauma during their journeys also reported higher recent perceived stress and tended to have higher CORT than those who did not experience trauma. In addition, we also observed sex differences in mental health and CORT profiles. Women tended to report poorer mental well-being and physical health and also had lower CORT compared to men. While longitudinal research is needed, our correlative findings are consistent with the notion that reducing exposure to extreme trauma and stress by establishing safe migration pathways for people fleeing hardship could potentially help attenuate forced relocation-related illnesses and improve health outcomes among refugees as they await resettlement.

Male and female mental health differences in built environment undergraduates

The construction industry faces skills shortages and growing mental health issues which have stimulated a research focus on the underrepresentation of female employees and on its tough macho-culture and stressful working conditions. Evidence of sex differences in construction workers’ mental health is starting to emerge, with women and younger workers experiencing the greatest levels of distress. This study takes an upstream perspective on construction human resources to explore sex differences in mental health and resilience in the early career pipeline of emerging built environment (BE) professionals. A survey of 384 BE undergraduates was conducted using the DASS-21 measure of mental health and the Resilience at University scale to explore the psychological adjustment of first and final year student cohorts. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, and regression. Compared to first year students, female students’ mental health appeared to have deteriorated across the four-year degree, whereas, male students’ overall mental health improved. The results suggest that the construction classroom may be operating as a microcosm of the cultural environment faced by women in society in general and in the construction industry with its macho culture filtering back into the university sector. These findings suggest the need for greater attention to sex and gender differences in mental health. It is recommended that construction educators and employers partner together to proactively affect culture change by addressing gender bias early, by consciously creating a female-friendly, inclusive culture which emphasises a sense of belonging, and by providing gender-appropriate support systems and resilience training for emerging construction professionals.

Sex differences in mental health and substance use disorders and treatment entry among justice-involved Veterans in the Veterans Health Administration.

Over half of veterans in the criminal justice system have mental health or substance use disorders. However, there is a critical lack of information about female veterans in the criminal justice system and how diagnosis prevalence and treatment entry differ by sex. To document prevalence of mental health and substance use disorder diagnoses and treatment entry rates among female veterans compared with male veterans in the justice system. Retrospective cohort study using national Veterans Health Administration clinical/administrative data from veterans seen by Veterans Justice Outreach Specialists in fiscal years 2010-2012. A total of 1535 females and 30,478 male veterans were included. Demographic characteristics (eg, sex, age, residence, homeless status), mental health disorders (eg, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder), substance use disorders (eg, alcohol and opioid use disorders), and treatment entry (eg, outpatient, residential, pharmacotherapy). Among female veterans, prevalence of mental health and substance use disorders was 88% and 58%, respectively, compared with 76% and 72% among male veterans. Women had higher odds of being diagnosed with a mental health disorder [adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=1.98; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.68-2.34] and lower odds of being diagnosed with a substance use disorder (AOR=0.50; 95% CI, 0.45-0.56) compared with men. Women had lower odds of entering mental health residential treatment (AOR=0.69; 95% CI, 0.57-0.83). Female veterans involved in the justice system have a high burden of mental health disorders (88%) and more than half have substance use disorders (58%). Entry to mental health residential treatment for women is an important quality improvement target.

Sex Differences in Mental Health among 13-15 Year Old Adolescents in Iran and Finland: A Comparative Study

Objectives: To investigate sex differences in mental health in 13-15 year-old adolescents in Iran and Finland, in order to explore potential cultural influence on sex differences in mental health during early adolescence. Methods: Six hundred adolescents from Iran and 2205 adolescents from Finland (age range 13-15 yrs.) filled in a questionnaire consisting of scales from the Brief Symptom Inventory (anxiety, hostility and depression), the Ostrobothnian Youth Survey (body satisfaction and somatic symptoms), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the SCOFF index for eating disorders. Results: In the Iranian sample, no sex difference was found on any of the seven measures. In the Finnish sample, sex differences were found on all seven, indicating better mental health among boys than among girls, in this age group. Conclusion: Studies conducted in Western nations usually find better mental health among adolescent boys than among adolescent girls. In the present study, it was true for the Finnish sample but not for the Iranian sample. The results suggest that the commonly found sex difference in mental health among adolescents may be a culturally based phenomenon. More study on the subject is needed.

Gender-linked personality and mental health: The role of trait emotional intelligence

The present study examined the role of the emotion-related personality dimension, or trait emotional intelligence (EI), in the relationship between gender-linked personality (GLP) traits and internalizing mental health difficulties (IMHDs). GLP traits were measured as Agency and Communion, due to conceptual advantages over other semantic representations (e.g., masculinity, femininity) in the literature. IMHDs as the outcome variable were conceptualized as a latent composite of anxiety, stress, and emotion-oriented coping. A moderate relationship between Agency and IMHDs was fully mediated by trait EI. Trait EI also divided an overall non-significant effect of Communion on IMHDs into an indirect, protective effect via trait EI and a direct, adverse effect. The results suggest that Agency and Communion subsume different sets of trait EI facets, which may account for much of the differential protective effects of these GLP traits on IMHDs. Discussion focuses on implications of the results for sex differences in mental health.

Are "traditional" sex differences less conspicuous in young cannabis users than in other young people?

Recent research has revealed conspicuously few distinctions between young males and females who use cannabis. Such findings may reflect the general slackening of the sex-role pattern in the younger generations. Alternatively, they may reflect distinctive characteristics of the cannabis culture. Using data from a nationwide representative sample (n = 1,478) of young Norwegians (21-24 years old), this study explores whether "traditional" sex differences in respect to mental health and alcohol use are less conspicuous among users than among nonusers of cannabis. The respondents' sex-role-related values and preferences were also studied. Results indicate that the sex differences in mental health did not vary between users and nonusers of cannabis; however, female cannabis users were disproportionately young when they experienced their first intoxication by alcohol. Their level of drinking was also disproportionately high. This implied that the sex difference in alcohol use was smaller among users than among nonusers: male users of cannabis consumed 2.8 times more alcohol than their female counterparts, whereas the corresponding male to female ratio was 3:2 in the nonusers. The extensive use of alcohol in female cannabis users did not reflect mental health problems or a rejection of traditional sex-role characteristics. Cannabis-using males were less typically masculine in their values and preferences than other males, but not more feminine. The measures for sex-role-related preferences did not discriminate between female users and female nonusers of cannabis.

Sex differences in the psychological well-being of Chinese adolescents.

This study assessed sex differences affecting the psychological well-being of Chinese adolescents. Various instruments were used to measure psychiatric symptoms and positive mental health. The results showed that female adolescents displayed significantly more psychiatric as well as somatic symptoms and scored lower on scales reflecting positive mental health. The findings are generally consistent with those found in the Western literature, but suggest that, in the Chinese culture, sex differences in mental health begin to appear in adolescents.

The Effects of Women's Employment: Personal Control and Sex Differences in Mental Health

Married women have been found consistently to have higher rates of anxious and depressive symptoms than married men. Power explanations for this difference predict that employment for women, which is associated with greater power in the family, would reduce women's symptoms to approximate men's more closely. Results on the effects of women's employment, however, are inconsistent. One explanation for this inconsistency concerns role overload, or the greater demands experienced by women with employment. This paper proposes that overload creates greater symptoms for the same reason as low power; that is, through lowering individuals' sense of personal control. Thus employment for women is not consistently positive because it often trades one source of low control for another. We test a personal control explanation for the effects of women's employment, using community surveys of mental health. Results indicate that issues of personal control underlie the effects of both high demands and low power on sex differences in anxious and depressive symptoms.

Sex differences in mental health.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between sex and mental illness. A sample of male and female adult psychiatric outpatients (n = 44) completed the Denver Community Mental Health Questionnaire (DCMHQ), the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, an abbreviated version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (the Mini-Mult), and the Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Differences in life event experiences, as well as differences on measures of anxiety, depression, psychological distress, and social functioning, were explored and identified by means of Pearson product-moment correlations. The strongest correlations were found between sex and four of the subscales of the DCMHQ: women tended to be less productive and evidenced more psychological distress than men; men had more legal difficulties and were more likely to use soft drugs. A modest correlation was found on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, with women showing higher scores.

Sex Differences in Mental Health in a Mexican Village

Sex Differences in Mental Health in a Mexican Village