Sex Differences In Expectations Research Articles

Sex Differences in Physical Activity Levels and Sitting Time in Patients With Atrial Fibrillation.

While research demonstrates low levels of physical activity (PA) among adults living with atrial fibrillation (AF), there is limited evidence investigating sex differences in moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary time in this population. The primary aim was to examine sex differences in MVPA levels and sitting time between women and men with AF. Secondary aims explored sex differences in sociodemographic factors, outcome expectations, and task self-efficacy toward PA levels. This was a subanalysis of the CHAMPLAIN-AF cohort study. Women and men with AF completed a survey, including the Short-Form International Physical Activity Questionnaire. A total of 210 women (median = 66.0 yr: 95% CI, 63.5-68.0) and 409 men (median = 66.0 yr: 95% CI, 64.0-67.0) were included. No sex differences were observed in median weekly MVPA (60 min/wk: 95% CI, 0-120 in women vs 120 min/wk: 95% CI, 85-150 in men) and daily sitting time (5.5 hr/d: 95% CI, 5.0-6.0 in women vs 6.0 hr/d: 95% CI, 5.0-6.0 in men). Women engaged in significantly less vigorous-intensity PA than men ( P = .03) and demonstrated significantly lower task self-efficacy ( P < .01). Significant positive correlations in PA levels with outcome expectations (mostly weak) and task self-efficacy (mostly strong) were observed in both sexes. Most women and men with AF did not meet the global MVPA guidelines but met the sitting time recommendation. Women presented with lower vigorous-intensity physical activity levels and confidence than men. Strategies to increase physical activity behavior, considering sociodemographic factors and task self-efficacy, are needed and may differ between sexes.

How Girls and Boys Expect Disclosure About Problems Will Make Them Feel: Implications for Friendships

Although girls disclose to friends about problems more than boys, little is known about processes underlying this sex difference. Four studies (Ns = 526, 567, 769, 154) tested whether middle childhood to mid-adolescent girls and boys (ranging from 8 to 17 years old) differ in how they expect that talking about problems would make them feel. Girls endorsed positive expectations (e.g., expecting to feel cared for, understood) more strongly than boys. Despite common perceptions, boys did not endorse negative expectations such as feeling embarrassed or worried about being made fun of more than girls. Instead, boys were more likely than girls to expect to feel "weird" and like they were wasting time. Sex differences in outcome expectations did help to account for girls' greater disclosure to friends.

Sex differences in friendship expectations: A meta-analysis

Friendship expectations are prescriptive normative behaviors and highly valued qualities in ideal same-sex friends. This paper reports the results of five meta-analyses of sex differences from 37 manuscripts (36 samples, N = 8825). A small difference favoring females was detected in overall friendship expectations ( d = .17). Friendship expectations were higher for females in three of four categories: symmetrical reciprocity (e.g., loyalty, genuineness; d = .17), communion (e.g., self-disclosure, intimacy; d = .39), solidarity (e.g., mutual activities, companionship; d = .03), but agency (e.g., physical fitness, status; d = -.34) was higher in males. Overall expectations and symmetrical reciprocity showed small effect sizes. Medium effect sizes for communion favoring females and for agency favoring males support predictions of evolutionary theory.

Sex Differences in Career Expectations of Physical Therapist Students

There are some sex differences in the career activities of physical therapists. The purpose of this study was to determine whether these sex differences are reflected in the career expectations of physical therapist students. Participants were 919 physical therapist students. Faculty at 34 physical therapist education programs distributed questionnaires to 1,172 of their students. The 919 returned questionnaires generated a response rate of 78.4%. Sex differences in career expectations were statistically analyzed with logistic regression. Men showed statistically significantly higher odds than women of expecting to own a private practice, to become a faculty member, to become a physical therapist manager or administrator, to publish articles in professional journals, and to have a higher income in the first year of employment. At the outset of physical therapist education, there are sex differences in the career expectations of physical therapist students.

Social cues in computer-mediated negotiations: Gender makes a difference

The extent to which social perceptions during computer-mediated communication are influenced by the availability of social information and are based on internalized social expectations was examined. In a computer-mediated negotiations task, 66 males and 39 females were provided with either no information about their opponent or were told that their opponent was the same sex as themselves. Two (Information: Other's sex known vs. unknown) × 2 (Sex: Male vs. female) multivariate analyses of covariance, controlling for self-expectations or perceptions, which were performed on subjects' expectations and ongoing perceptions of the other negotiator revealed significant interaction effects. When no information was given about the other negotiator, there were no sex differences in expectations and perceptions. However, when the other's sex was known, females were perceived as more cooperative and less exploitative than males. These expectations were associated with differences in initial negotiation behaviors. Contrary to previous research, these findings suggest that computer-mediated social perceptions are indeed sensitive to social cues and that these social cues may invoke stereotypes or a priori expectations.

Examination of Sex Differences in Expectations of Pay and Perceptions of Equity in Pay

A sample of 72 undergraduate business students was tested to examine the effects of sex on expectations of pay and perceptions of equity in pay. The respondents completed a questionnaire which assessed their expectations for the range of starting salaries for 1988 graduates in their own major, and the salary levels which would make them feel overrewarded and underrewarded. Multivariate analyses of variance performed upon six dependent variables related to perception of pay gave significant over-all main effects for sex. Specifically, men, relative to women, had lower tolerance for underpayment and expected higher starting salaries at the lowest and next lowest points on a salary range which they expected to apply to 1988 graduates in their major fields. No differences were found in tolerance for overpayment or for the two high end-points of the salary range.

Sex Differences in Occupational Performance Expectations

This study is an investigation of the effects of occupational sex-dominance on sex differences in occupational performance expectations. Female and male college students indicated their expectations for their own performance— self expectations—and that of either a “typical” male, female, or male and female person— comparison person expectations—for six occupations varying according to perceived sex-dominance. Additionally, the performance expectations were reported under anticipated private or public conditions. Results indicated that in contrast to males, females reported lower expectations for themselves alone and lower expectations for themselves in comparison to another person for male-dominated occupations. However, unlike males, females reported higher expectations for themselves and for themselves in comparison to others for female-dominated fields. Occupational sex dominance appeared to influence females' performance expectations, while males' expectations were similar across fields varying in sex-dominance. Neither the sex of the comparison person nor the anticipated privacy of the expectations were found to be related to the sex differences in performance expectations.

Measuring occupation aspiration in research on sex differences—An overview and analysis of issues

Research investigating sex differences in occupational aspirations and expectations often uses an occupational prestige scale to code occupations for comparison. We contend that this is not an appropriate procedure and justify this assertion by looking at several ways in which prestige scales contain inherent sex biases. Issues raised include the procedures of development of early prestige scales on which most later scales are founded; the apparent congruence of prestige ratings by men and women; the effect of sex of incumbent on prestige ratings; and sex differences in the perceptions of desirability of occupations. There is clear evidence for the need for caution in considering sex differences in occupational aspiration using prestige ratings. Some alternative approaches are suggested.

Peripheral vision and the aetiology of child pedestrian accidents.

Three experiments examined whether age and sex differences in pedestrian accidents might be partly attributable to differences in the visual perception of peripheral stimuli. Primary schoolchildren and adults responded individually to the presentation of lights at retinal eccentricities of 2 degrees, 20 degrees and 40 degrees. Experiments 1 and 2 measured reaction times and Expt 3 measured subjects' expectations of foveal and peripheral events. There were no age or sex differences in expectations. Lights were detected fastest in the 20-40 degrees range. Movement times were not variable across eccentricities. As expected, adults' and 11-year-olds' detections were faster than eight- and six-year-olds'. A case is made for more problem-analytic and multi-theoretical research in the area of the child pedestrian accidents.

Gender differences related to weight history, eating patterns, efficacy expectations, self-esteem, and weight loss among participants in a weight reduction program

Fifty-five men and 58 women participating in a behavioral weight loss program were studied to determine sex differences in weight history, eating patterns, efficacy expectations, self-esteem, weight loss and maintenance. Weight history, eating patterns, and psychological variables were further analyzed to identify factors associated with weight change. Women reported more previous dieting experience and a higher degree of overweight at age 25 than men. Women also reported more eating in response to mood and lower self-efficacy prior to participation in this program, while men reported more eating in social situations. Women's self-efficacy rose during treatment, but men's did not. Short-term weight loss was not related to sex, but women were more successful in maintaining weight loss. Degree of overweight at age 25 and prior program participation were inversely related to weight loss success. Self-efficacy in social situations was positively associated in men with short-term weight loss. For men, eating frequency in various moods at post-treatment negatively predicted weight maintenance, and self-efficacy in controlling mood-related eating was positively associated with weight maintenance. We conclude that men and women differ importantly along several dimensions with regard to weight history and response to treatment. These differences may have implications for treatment of overweight.

An Investigation of Sex Differences in Pay Expectations and Their Possible Causes.

Discrepancies in the pay expectations of male and female management students were investigated, and potential causes of such discrepancies were explored. Females were found to have significantly lo...

An Investigation of Sex Differences in Pay Expectations and Their Possible Causes

An Investigation of Sex Differences in Pay Expectations and Their Possible Causes

Some Preconceptions about Hypnosis among Preclinical Medical Students: A Brief Communication

Abstract 372 preclinical medical students from the University of Sydney, Australia were surveyed concerning their beliefs about hypnosis and its medical use. Several “myths” concerning hypnosis emerged (e.g., hypnosis is a passive state, there are sex differences in hypnotizability, posthypnotic amnesia is inevitable, and there is automatic obedience to the hypnotist). Sex differences in expectations of hypnotizability were found. Relatively few physical problems were perceived as being amenable to treatment by hypnosis and the proportion of medical practitioners in the national professional hypnosis society was grossly underestimated.

Sex Differences in Self-Efficacy and Attributions: Influence of Performance Feedback

This study explored the hypothesis that explicit performance feedback would moderate sex differences in performance expectations (self-efficacy) and attributions. Within this context, this study investigated whether achievement cognitions differed as a function of grade level. Male and female students in grades six and eight judged their self-efficacy for learning a novel mathematical task (residues), after which they individually completed a written packet that provided instruction and practice opportunities. Students received performance feedback by checking answers to alternate problems. Following training, attributions and self-efficacy for solving residue problems were assessed. Although girls initially judged self-efficacy lower than boys, no sex differences were obtained on any measure following training. Sixth graders made higher effort attributions and demonstrated lower residue skill than eighth-grade students. Implications for teaching are discussed.

Cognitive mediators of reactions to a minor life‐event: The British driving test

Predictions derived from social learning theory and from the attributional reformulation of learned helplessness theory were tested in a ‘real‐life’ situation involving success or failure, the British driving test. Among the predictions made were that pre‐test expectations would affect the probability of passing, the attributions made for success or failure, and persistence following failure. The attributional dimensions of internality, stability and globality were expected to correlate with mood, expectancy of future success and persistence, and sex differences were predicted in both expectations and attributions. The results showed that pre‐test expectations were related to attributions of success and to persistence, but not to the probability of passing or to attributions for failure. Attributions themselves correlated only in the predicted fashion with expectancy of future success among male subjects. But there were consistent sex differences in expectations, attributions for success and persistence. The implications of these findings for cognitive/attributional theory are discussed.

Scaling the Corporate Ladder: Sex Differences in Expectations for Performance, Power and Mobility

This paper investigates the conditions under which sex-based status rankings cease to influence expectations of performance, power and mobility in large-scale organizations. Structural theories of organizations and status-characteristics theory suggest that differences in performance expectations will be eliminated, or at least reduced, when men and women hold identical positions in the corporate hierarchy and have equivalent records of past performance. Holding past performance and current position constant, our sample of middle managers reported similar expectations for the managerial performance of newly promoted male and female managers. Cause attributed for recent promotion was the only measured variable related to performance expectations. Our respondents did expect male managers to have more power and future mobility than equivalent female managers. Neither structural nor status-characteristics explanations of organizational behavior predict this. The relation of cause attributedfor promotion to both sex of the' promoted person and powerlmobility helps to explain the sex-differentiated expectations for power and mobility. These findings indicate the necessity of'considering the explanations given for past performance and promotion when investigating structural and status variables which affect expectations of future success.

Effects of religious denomination on sex differences in occupational expectations

The degree of difference between men and women in occupational expectations and attitude toward careers for married women are related to the degree of discrimination against women in religious denominations. Occupational expectations are scored along the dimension of masculinity. Discrimination against women is indicated by extent and timing of the ordination of women within the denominations for which subjects indicated a preference. Data are a subselection of 12,018 cases from a national sample of 189,733 first-time full-time entering college freshmen. The difference between women and men in masculinity of occupational choice and agreement with the attitude “Activities of married women are best confined to the home and family” are positively related to denominational discrimination against women.

Domestic Roles and Sex Differences in Occupational Expectations

Domestic Roles and Sex Differences in Occupational Expectations

Sex Differences in Occupational Aspirations and Expectations

The research reported in this paper examines sex differences in the prestige and sex-type of occupational aspirations and expectations held by adolescents. Sex differences in the discrepancy between aspirations and expectations are examined, and the effects of socioeconomic background and academic achievement on the unmeasured construct of occupational ambition are compared for the two sexes. The study is based on a random sample of eleventh-grade students in Pennsylvania. The findings indicate that: (I) occupational aspirations and expectations held by adolescents are highly differentiated by sex according to the pattern of sexual segregation in the occupational structure; (2) boys aspire to and expect higher levels of occupational attainment than girls; (3) boys' occupational aspirations and expectations are characterized by greater variability than those of girls; (4) the discrepancy between the prestige of occupations aspired to and expected is greater for girls than boys at higher levels of aspiration; (5) there is no difference in the sex-type of occupations aspired to and expected by boys, but girls are more likely to aspire to male-dominated occupations than to expect they will enter them; and (6) both socioeconomic background and academic achievement have a greater effect on occupational ambition for boys than girls, although these variables have a greater effect on girls than has been found in previous studies.

Sex Differences in Educational Aspirations and Expectations

Previous studies of sex differences in adolescents’ goals for educational attainment have focused on either educational aspirations or expectations and found that socioeconomic background has a greater effect on the educational goals of girls than boys, and that academic ability has a greater effect on the educational goals of boys than girls. Almost all of these studies are based on students who attended high school between 1955 and 1960. This paper examines more recent evidence on sex differences in both educational aspirations and expectations, obtained from a random sample of eleventh grade students in Pennsylvania. The findings indicate that: (1) boys both aspire to and expect higher levels of educational attainment than girls; (2) the discrepancy between educational aspirations and expectations is greater for girls than boys at higher levels of aspiration; and (3) both socioeconomic background and academic ability, as measured by an achievement test, have a greater effect on educational ambition for boys than girls.