Sex Differences In Depressive Symptoms Research Articles

Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms in 1308 Patients Post-Stroke at Entry to Cardiac Rehabilitation.

The objective of this study was to determine whether a sex difference exists in the prevalence of post-stroke depressive symptoms (PSDS) at entry to cardiac rehabilitation (CR) and to determine the correlates of PSDS in all patients, and in women and men separately. People post-stroke at entry to CR from database records (2006-2017) were included. Bivariate analyses identified PSDS correlates (≥16 on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale) in all patients and women and men separately. Patients (n = 1308, 28.9% women), mean age of 63.9 ± 12.9 yr, were 24.2 ± 9.9 mo post-stroke at CR entry. Among all patients, 30.0% had PSDS. A greater proportion of women than men had PSDS (38.6 vs 26.6%; P < .001). Correlates of PSDS in all patients were sex (women) (OR = 1.6: 95% CI, 1.14-2.12), being unemployed, ≤60 yr old, prescribed antidepressant medication, having lower cardiorespiratory fitness (peak oxygen uptake [V̇ o2peak ]), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), higher body mass index (BMI), no transient ischemic attack, and longer time from stroke to CR entry (>12 mo). Correlates in women were being obese (BMI ≥ 30), 51-70 yr old, prescribed antidepressant medication, and not married. Correlates in men were being ≤60 yr old, unemployed, prescribed antidepressant medication, having lower V̇ o2peak , sleep apnea, COPD, and no hypertension. Women were disproportionately affected by PSDS at entry to CR in bivariate and multivariable analyses. Women and men had mostly unique correlates of PSDS, indicating tailored strategies to address PSDS are required. PSDS disproportionately affected patients with longer delay to CR entry, suggesting efforts should target timely referral to facilitate earlier and repeated assessments and management.

Associations among early life adversity, sleep disturbances, and depressive symptoms in adolescent females and males: a longitudinal investigation.

Exposure to adversity early in life (ELA) has been associated with elevated risk for depression during adolescence, particularly for females; the mechanisms underlying this association, however, are poorly understood. One potential mechanism linking ELA and sex differences in depressive symptoms is sleep disturbances, which increase during adolescence and are more common in females. Here, we examined whether sleep disturbances mediate the association between ELA and increases in depressive symptoms during adolescence and whether this mediation differs by sex. 224 (N = 132 females) youth were recruited at age 9-13 years and assessed every 2 years across three timepoints. At the first timepoint, we conducted extensive interviews about stressful events participants experienced; participants provided subjective severity ratings of events and we objectively scored the severity of each event. Self-reported sleep disturbances and depressive symptoms were assessed at all timepoints. We conducted linear mixed models to estimate both initial levels and changes in sleep disturbances and depressive symptoms, and moderated mediation analyses to test whether initial levels and/or changes in sleep disturbances mediated the association of ELA (objective and subjective) with increases in depressive symptoms across adolescence and whether the mediations differed by sex. While higher initial levels and increases in sleep problems were uniquely associated with increases in depressive symptoms for males and females, they were related to ELA differently by sex. For females, greater ELA (both objectively and subjectively rated) was associated with higher initial levels of sleep problems, which in turn were associated with increases in depressive symptoms from early to late adolescence. In contrast, for males, ELA exposure was not associated with either initial levels of, or increases in, sleep problems. These findings highlight the role of sleep disturbances during the transition to adolescence in mediating sex differences in the effects of ELA on depressive symptoms.

Sex differences in changes of depressive symptoms among older adults before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence from two longitudinal cohorts

BackgroundMajor concerns about the adverse mental health impact of the rapidly spread COVID-19 pandemic have been raised. Previous studies on changes of depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic have yielded inconsistent results regarding the sex differences. Since women have higher depressive symptoms even without the pandemic, it is essential to consider the pre-existing change of depressive symptoms of a similar period to discern the effect of the pandemic on depression. This study aimed to evaluate sex differences in depressive symptoms before and during the pandemic.MethodsData from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS; waves 13 to 15) and the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA; wave 8 to COVID-19 wave 2) were analyzed. Depressive symptoms were assessed by the 8-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale. According to the time of COVID-19 outbreak in the US and the UK, the intervals from waves 13 to 14 surveys of the HRS and from waves 8 to 9 surveys of the ELSA were employed as pre-pandemic periods to control for the pre-existing depressive symptoms, respectively. Changes of CES-D scores during the pre-pandemic and pandemic periods were assessed by linear mixed models.ResultsNine thousand, seven hundred thirty-seven participants (mean age: 66.7 ± 10.7 years) from the HRS and 5,098 participants (mean age: 68.7 ± 10.0 years) from the ELSA were included. CES-D scores among women were significantly higher than those among men at all waves in both cohorts. During the pre-pandemic period, no significant sex difference on changes of CES-D scores was detected in either the HRS or the ELSA. During the pandemic period, CES-D scores were increased in both men and women and the sex differences in CES-D increments of the two cohorts were both significant. Enlarged sex differences were demonstrated in increments of CES-D scores during the pandemic period.ConclusionsOur results suggest women suffered from worse depressive symptoms in response to the pandemic, although the changes of depression were similar between men and women before the pandemic. These findings underscore the necessity to support the vulnerable populations, especially women, to manage the distress brought by the pandemic and maintain optimal mental health status.

Sex differences in serum levels of 5α-androstane-3β, 17β-diol, and androstenediol in the young adults: A liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry study

Animal experiments have consistently shown that estrogen receptor β (ERβ)-selective ligands have antidepressant and anxiolytic effects. In humans, endogenous ligands for ERβ include 5α-androstane-3β, 17β-diol (3βAdiol) and androstenediol (Δ5-diol). We determined, for the first time, the exact serum levels of 3βAdiol and Δ5-diol in young healthy volunteers using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). We investigated the effect of the menstrual cycle on the levels of these steroids in women; then, we performed a gender comparison. Blood samples were collected from 48 subjects: 23 women (mean age = 28.4±7.8 years) and 25 men (mean age = 31.4±7.8 years). We collected the blood samples of women at three time-points in the menstrual cycle: the early follicular phase, ovulatory or mid-cycle phase, and mid-luteal phase. A total of 92 blood samples were analyzed using LC–MS/MS. The levels of two well-studied steroids, namely dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and 17β-estradiol (E2), were simultaneously measured. Depression rating scale (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, Beck Depression Inventory-II and Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology) scores were also recorded at the time of blood sampling. Significant differences in the levels of 3βAdiol and E2 and in the depression rating scale scores were observed over the duration of the menstrual cycle of the women. The levels of 3βAdiol and Δ5-diol were significantly lower in women than in men. E2 levels were higher in women than in men, and DHEA levels did not differ significantly between men and women. Further, women had higher scores than men on the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression. Sex differences in depressive symptoms can be explained by 3βAdiol and Δ5-diol levels, and the effect of the menstrual cycle on mood can be explained by 3βAdiol and E2 levels, not by Δ5-diol level.

Sex differences in quality of life and depressive symptoms among middle-aged and elderly Europeans: results from the SHARE survey

Objectives We examine sex differences in quality of life (QoL) and depressive symptoms across age and European regions. Methods We performed a large cross-sectional study based on 64,552 women and 53,647 men aged 50+ who participated in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) from 2004-2020. Linear and logistic regression models were used to examine associations with QoL (CASP-12) and depressive symptoms (EURO-D). Results Women reported slightly lower QoL (coefficient −0.78, 95% CI −0.92; −0.65) and more depressive symptoms (odds ratio (OR) 2.23, 95% CI 2.13; 2.34) than men. Sex differences in QoL increased with advancing age, whereas sex differences in depressive symptoms were stable across age groups. No overall sex difference in QoL was found in Northern Europe, but women had lower QoL than men in Western (coefficient −0.49, 95% CI −0.69; −0.29), Southern (coefficient −1.35, 95% CI −1.61; −1.09) and Eastern (coefficient −0.72, 95% CI −1.05; −0.39) Europe. However, sex differences varied within the specific CASP-12 items, with women having overall lower control and autonomy, but more self-realisation, than men. Women reported more depressive symptoms than men in all regions, with the largest overall sex difference in Southern Europe (OR 2.62, 95% CI 2.40; 2.86). A female disadvantage was found for most of the EURO-D items, with the largest sex differences for ‘tearfulness’, ‘depression’ and ‘sleep’. Conclusion Middle-aged and elderly European women report lower QoL and more depressive symptoms than European men, lending support for the male-female health survival paradox.

Organizing and Analyzing Data from the SHARE Study with an Application to Age and Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms.

The SHARE study contains health, lifestyle, and socioeconomic data from individuals ages 50 and older in European countries collected over several waves. Leveraging these data for research purposes can be daunting due to the complex structure of the longitudinal design. The two aims of our study are (1) to develop a framework and R code for data management of the SHARE data to prepare for data analysis, and (2) to demonstrate how to apply the framework to a specific research question, where the aim is to model the presence of clinically significant depression assessed by the 12-item Europe depression scale. The result is a framework that substantially reduces the time to initiate research studies using SHARE data, facilitating the data extraction, data preparation and initial data analysis, with reproducible R code. Further, we illustrate the extensive work required to prepare an analysis-ready data set to ensure the validity of the modeling results. This underlines the importance of carefully considering and recording data management decisions that have to be built into the research process. The results about sex differences in the probability of depression are consistent with previous literature. Our findings about age-associated changes can be opportunities for adequate treatment interventions.

Unequal Gender Norms Are Related to Symptoms of Depression Among Young Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional, Cross-Cultural Study

PurposeThis study was undertaken among 10- to 14-year-old girls and boys in disadvantaged areas of Shanghai, China; Cuenca, Ecuador; Flanders, Belgium; and Denpasar and Semarang, Indonesia. It aimed to assess whether gender norms are related to depressive symptomatology, and to examine whether sex differences in depressive symptoms can be explained by differences in gender norm perceptions. MethodsWe examined the distributions of depressive symptoms and two gender norms scales, gender stereotypical traits (GST), and sexual double standard (SDS), across sites and by sex. We next assessed crude and adjusted associations between each of the gender norms scales and depressive symptoms. Finally, we conducted path analysis to examine the mediating role of gender perceptions in sex differences in depressive symptoms. ResultsGirls reported more depressive symptoms than boys in all sites except Denpasar. SDS perceptions were more unequal among girls in most sites, while GST perceptions were more unequal among boys in all sites except Semarang. Gender-equal SDS and GST perceptions were associated with fewer depressive symptoms, while unequal perceptions were related to more symptoms. Gendered perceptions about traits and relationships appeared to partially mediate relationships between sex and depressive symptoms in Shanghai, Cuenca, and Semarang. ConclusionsUnequal gender norm perceptions were linked to poor mental health among boys and girls, suggesting that gender norms may play a role in psychological wellbeing for adolescents of both sexes. Gender norm perceptions appear to play a role in mental health sex disparities we observed across sites.

Sex differences in depressive symptoms upon entry to cardiac rehabilitation: a sex- age- and diagnosis matched cohort

Sex differences in depressive symptoms upon entry to cardiac rehabilitation: a sex- age- and diagnosis matched cohort

Sex differences in depressive symptoms and their networks in a treatment-seeking population – a cross-sectional study

BackgroundThe higher prevalence of major depressive disorder (MDD) in females relative to males is well-established. Some authors have posited this difference arises to divergent symptom profiles in females vs. males. However, empirical tests of this hypothesis have yielded equivocal results. Here, we investigate sex differences in MDD of individual symptoms and symptom networks in a treatment-seeking sample. MethodsWe assessed depressive symptoms using Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS-17) in 590 treatment-seeking adults with MDD (300 females). We examined group differences in symptom endorsement. We investigated symptom networks and estimated Gaussian Graphical Models. Finally, we compared the female and male networks using the Network Comparison Test. ResultsFemales scored significantly higher in psychological anxiety (p <0.001; rB = -0.155), somatic anxiety (p = .001; rB = -0.150) and feelings of guilt (p = .002; rB = -0.139). Male and female patients did not differ in depression sum scores. There were no sex differences in network structure or global strength. LimitationsOur study was sufficiently powered to detect only medium sized symptom differences. The generalizability of our study is limited to clinical samples and further studies are needed to investigate if findings also translate to outpatient samples. ConclusionFemales reported elevated anxiety symptoms and guilt. Clinicians should assess these symptom differences and tailor treatment to individual symptom profiles. No differences between sexes emerged in MDD network structures, indicating that features may be more similar than previously assumed. Sex differences in psychopathological features of MDD are important for future research and personalized treatment.

Sex Differences in the Prevalence and Clinical Features of Comorbid Depressive Symptoms in Never-Treated Chinese Patients With First-Episode Schizophrenia

Many studies have indicated a sex-specific effect in many aspects of schizophrenia. The presence of depressive symptomatology exists in all phases of schizophrenia. The aim of this study is to investigate the sex differences in the proportion of comorbid depressive symptoms and sex-specific relationships between depressive symptoms and clinical correlates in never-treated Chinese patients with first-episode schizophrenia (NTFE patients), which have not been reported yet. Via a cross-sectional design, 240 NTFE inpatients (male/female = 111/129) between ages 16 and 45 years and meeting DSM-IV-TR criteria of schizophrenia were recruited. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was used for the psychopathology, and the 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS-17) for the comorbid depressive symptoms. This study was conducted from June 2013 to December 2015. The proportion of patients with depressive symptoms (total score on HDRS-17 ≥ 8) in men was significantly higher than in women (male: 62.2%, female: 48.1%; χ²₁ = 4.28, P = .039). Male patients had significantly greater depressive symptoms as shown on the HDRS-17 than female patients (t1, 238 = 2.75, P = .006). Further, we found that age, the age at onset, smoking rate, and PANSS total and general psychopathology, negative symptoms, and cognitive factor subscores favored significant sex differences in female patients (all P < .05). Interestingly, we found sex differences in the correlation between the HDRS-17 score and clinical phenotype, showing that in male patients, the PANSS general psychopathology subscore (β = 0.75, t = 7.72, P < .001) and total score (β = 0.44, t = 4.81, P < .001) significantly predicted the HDRS-17 total score, while in female patients, the PANSS general psychopathology subscore (β = 0.74, t = 8.45, P < .001), total score (β = 0.47, t = 5.71, P < .001), and cognitive factor subscore (β = 0.24, t = 2.60, P < .001) significantly predicted the HDRS-17 total score. Our results indicate sex differences in the frequency and severity of comorbid depressive symptoms and in associations between depressive symptoms and clinical correlates in NTFE patients.

Work-Family Conflict and the Sex Difference in Depression Among Training Physicians

Depression is common among training physicians and may disproportionately affect women. The identification of modifiable risk factors is key to reducing this disease burden and its negative impact on patient care and physician career attrition. To determine the presence and magnitude of a sex difference in depressive symptoms and work-family conflict among training physicians; and if work-family conflict impacts the sex difference in depressive symptoms among training physicians. A prospective longitudinal cohort study of medical internship in the United States during the 2015 to 2016 academic year in which 3121 interns were recruited across all specialties from 44 medical institutions. Prior to and during their internship year, participants reported the degree to which work responsibilities interfered with family life using the Work Family Conflict Scale and depressive symptoms using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Mean (SD) participant age was 27.5 (2.7) years, and 1571 participants (49.7%) were women. Both men and women experienced a marked increase in depressive symptoms during their internship year, with the increase being statistically significantly greater for women (men: mean increase in PHQ-9, 2.50; 95% CI, 2.26-2.73 vs women: mean increase, 3.20; 95% CI, 2.97-3.43). When work-family conflict was accounted for, the sex disparity in the increase in depressive symptoms decreased by 36%. Our study demonstrates that depressive symptoms increase substantially during the internship year for men and women, but that this increase is greater for women. The study also identifies work-family conflict as an important potentially modifiable factor that is associated with elevated depressive symptoms in training physicians. Systemic modifications to alleviate conflict between work and family life may improve physician mental health and reduce the disproportionate depression disease burden for female physicians. Given that depression among physicians is associated with poor patient care and career attrition, efforts to alleviate depression among physicians has the potential to reduce the negative consequences associated with this disease.

Sex differences in experimental measures of pain sensitivity and endogenous pain inhibition.

It has been suggested that increased pain sensitivity and disruption of endogenous pain inhibitory processes may account, at least in part, for the greater prevalence and severity of chronic pain in women compared to men. However, previous studies addressing this topic have produced mixed findings. This study examined sex differences in pain sensitivity and inhibition using quantitative sensory testing (QST), while also considering the influence of other important factors such as depressive symptoms and sleep quality. Healthy men (n=24) and women (n=24) each completed a QST battery. This battery included an ischemic pain task (IPT) that used a submaximal effort tourniquet procedure as well as a conditioned pain modulation (CPM) procedure for the assessment of endogenous pain inhibition. Prior to QST, participants completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Analyses revealed significant sex differences for the ischemic pain task and the conditioned pain modulation procedure, such that women tolerated the ischemic pain for a shorter amount of time and demonstrated less pain inhibition compared with men. This remained true even when accounting for sex differences in depressive symptoms and sleep quality. The results of this study suggest that women may be more pain sensitive and possess less-efficient endogenous pain inhibitory capacity compared with men. Whether interventions that decrease pain sensitivity and enhance pain inhibition in women ultimately improve their clinical pain outcomes is an area of research that deserves additional attention in the future.

Stress and the Development of Cognitive Vulnerabilities to Depression Explain Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms during Adolescence.

Although cognitive vulnerabilities to depression have received considerable empirical support, little research has evaluated the differential development of cognitive vulnerabilities in adolescent girls and boys. The current study examined the role of stressful life events, as well as sex differences in reactivity and exposure to stress, in the development of negative cognitive style and rumination in a multi-wave study of 382 adolescents. Path analyses indicated that interpersonal dependent stress predicted higher prospective levels of negative cognitive styles and rumination. Additionally, girls' greater exposure to interpersonal dependent stress explained their higher levels of rumination, which accounted for girls' higher levels of depressive symptoms than boys. These findings suggest that interpersonal dependent stress is a significant risk factor for the formation of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression during adolescence, and that the sex difference in depressive symptoms may result from girls' greater exposure to interpersonal dependent stress and ruminative response style than boys.

A Preliminary Examination of the Relationship Between the 5-HTTLPR and Childhood Emotional Abuse on Depressive Symptoms in 10-12-Year-Old Youth.

Childhood emotional abuse (CEA) is a pervasive problem associated with negative sequelae such as elevated depressive symptoms. Key stress-related genes, such as the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism, interact with childhood abuse to produce elevated depressive symptoms in older adolescent girls, but not in older adolescent boys. To date, studies have not examined this relationship as a function of CEA specifically or among younger adolescents. To extend prior work, we examined the effects of the 5-HTTLPR and CEA on depressive symptoms among 10-12-year-old youth. Based on previous findings, we expected a main effect of CEA on depressive symptoms among all youth, but only expected an interactive effect between the 5-HTTLPR and CEA on depressive symptoms in girls. In the current study, 222 youth (mean age 11.02 years, 44.1% girls, 51.6% Caucasian, 33.0% African American, 2.7% Latino, and 12.7% other) and their parent(s)/guardian(s) completed the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale and the Emotional Abuse subscale of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and provided saliva samples for genotyping the 5-HTTLPR. Results indicate that CEA, but not the 5-HTTLPR, was related to elevated depressive symptoms among boys. Among girls, each copy of the s allele of the 5-HTTLPR was related to increased depressive symptoms, but only for those who had experienced CEA. Our results extend prior findings by specifically examining CEA and by focusing on 10-12-year-old youth. These results, although preliminary, suggest that focusing on the interplay between putative genetic markers and a broader range of environmental events, such as CEA, might allow researchers to determine factors differentially influencing the later emergence of sex differences in depressive symptoms.

A Vulnerability-Stress Examination of Response Styles Theory in Adolescence: Stressors, Sex Differences, and Symptom Specificity

The stress-reactivity extension of the response styles theory of depression suggests that individuals who ruminate (or fail to engage in distraction or problem solving) in response to dysphoric mood are likely to experience higher levels of depression following stress. However, previous studies have not addressed (a) the specificity of these vulnerability–stress relations to symptoms of depression following different types of stressors, and (b) to what extent rumination and stress can account for the sex differences in depression that emerge during early adolescence. A community sample of 256 early adolescents (ages 12–13) completed a baseline visit and a follow-up visit 9 months later. Response styles and symptoms of depression and anxiety were assessed at baseline, and intervening life events, emotional maltreatment, peer relational victimization, and symptoms of depression and anxiety were assessed at follow-up. Higher rumination and lower distraction/problem solving interacted with several types of stressors to predict higher levels of symptoms of depression but not anxiety. Rumination was more strongly associated with elevations in depressive symptoms following the occurrence of relational victimization events in girls than in boys. In addition, dependent interpersonal stress mediated the sex difference in depressive symptoms that emerged at follow-up, and this indirect pathway was stronger among adolescents who tended to ruminate. Rumination may confer vulnerability that is specific to symptoms of depression following recent stressors during early adolescence. Girls who ruminate may be particularly likely to experience depression following relational victimization, and dependent interpersonal stressors may help to account for girls’ greater risk for depression during adolescence.

Sex differences in trajectories of depressive symptoms among older Taiwanese: the contribution of selected stressors and social factors

Objectives: We assessed female–male differences in depressive symptoms among older Taiwanese and quantified the contribution of sex differences in exposure and response to selected covariates in explaining the gap. Methods: Using data from six survey waves over 18 years for a nationally representative cohort of 4049 Taiwanese aged 60+, we employed growth curve analysis to model individual-level trajectories of depressive symptoms across age. Results: Among older Taiwanese, women's disadvantage with respect to social position and employment accounted for about 40% of the sex difference in depressive symptoms. Sex differences in decision control and exposure to widowhood and financial decline played surprisingly little role. Although we found no evidence that the effects of marriage, recent widowhood or recent child death varied by sex, living apart from one's children appeared to be more detrimental for women than for men in this society. Moreover, the effect of living with children depended on the arrangement: living with an unmarried son was more strongly associated with depressive symptoms than living with a married son and daughter-in-law. Conclusion: Sex differentials in social position and employment are major contributors to the sex difference in depressive symptoms among older Taiwanese, yet sex differences in exposure or response to selected stressors appear to play little role. Differential vulnerabilities to particular living arrangements may also contribute to women's excess psychological distress, although more research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms by which living arrangements influence depressive symptoms in Taiwan.

Exploration of Age and Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms and Illness Attitudes for Youth With Epilepsy and Juvenile Rheumatic Disease

The aim was to explore the relationship of youth age and sex to depressive symptoms and illness attitudes in youth with epilepsy and juvenile rheumatic disease. Youth with epilepsy or juvenile rheumatic disease between the ages of 7 and 19 years completed measures of depressive symptoms and illness attitudes. A significant 3-way interaction, Disease Group × Sex × Age, was found when predicting depressive symptoms. Post hoc analyses revealed a simple 2-way Disease Group × Age interaction for males and females. Younger males and adolescent females with epilepsy reported greater depressive symptoms than younger males and adolescent females with a juvenile rheumatic disease. Youth with epilepsy reported more negative illness attitudes than youth diagnosed with a juvenile rheumatic disease, but no other main effects or interactions were found. Results suggest early screening of depressive symptoms, with particular attention to younger males and adolescent females with epilepsy.

Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms and Their Correlates After Mild-to-Moderate Traumatic Brain Injury

The purpose of this secondary data analysis, guided by allostatic load theory, was to compare depressive symptoms and their correlates in men and women following mild or moderate traumatic brain injury (n = 159). Using general linear modeling procedures in the Statistical Analysis Software, women reported significantly higher Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scores compared with men. According to the Neurobehavioral Functioning inventory subscales, women also reported higher somatic and motor symptoms and difficulties with memory and cognition. Further, women within the first 6 months of their injury reported higher levels of depressive and depressive-somatic symptoms, perceived chronic stress, pain, memory difficulties, and somatic symptoms. These findings were no longer present at the 6- to 12-month or >12-month cutoffs. Women's depressive symptoms during the early recovery period are explained by higher symptom loads and perceived stress, yet mechanisms responsible for these differences remain to be elucidated. Future research is needed to describe hormonal, perceptual, or brain structure differences that may account for these findings. Findings from such research will most likely to contribute to our understanding of postconcussion syndrome.

Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms and Their Correlates After Mild-to-Moderate Traumatic Brain Injury

Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms and Their Correlates After Mild-to-Moderate Traumatic Brain Injury

Does the Hopelessness Theory Account for Sex Differences in Depressive Symptoms Among Young Adults?

The present study examined whether the sex difference in depression could be accounted for within the framework of the hopelessness theory of depression. Specifically, we tested whether young adults' negative inferential styles mediated the sex difference in depressive symptoms or whether sex moderated the cognitive vulnerability-stress effects on depressive symptoms in a multi-wave longitudinal study. In doing so, we examined the different forms of negative inferential styles separately (causes, consequences, self-characteristics, composite, weakest link). Results did not support the mediation hypothesis. In terms of the moderation hypothesis, we found significant sex 9 inferential style 9 stress interactions predicting depressive symptoms across the follow-up, with the vulnerability-stress effects significant for men but not women. Among women, negative inferential styles and life events were independent predictors of depressive symptoms. In these moderation analyses, each of the inferential styles exhibited similar predictive validity.