Sex Differences In Attributions Research Articles

Sex differences in young children's perceptions of situational drinking norms over time.

To date, there have been no previous studies examining sex differences in the development of alcohol-related perceptions over time, a potential avenue for targeted prevention and early intervention efforts. This article examines any potential sex differences in young children's development of situational drinking norms over time. Two hundred ninety-eight children (aged 4-6 years at baseline) completed the Dutch electronic Appropriate Beverage Task-which involves attributing alcoholic beverages to adults in varying situational contexts-annually over 3 years (2015, 2016, 2017). Three-level regression models were estimated examining whether perceptions of situational drinking norms varied as a function of the sex of the participant and whether there were any changes over time. Over time children did not attribute more alcoholic beverages to adults in various situations, instead both boys and girls became more accurate at correctly identifying situations in which drinking is more common. Over time, both boys and girls attributed more alcoholic beverages in common situations and less in uncommon situations, with no significant sex differences in attributions of alcohol found. We identified no significant sex differences in the development of situational drinking norms over time, suggesting that education and prevention campaigns can be unified/nontargeted by sex. However, given our findings differ from previous studies that identify significant sex differences between children on the development of other alcohol-related cognitions beyond situational drinking norms, there is a need for more international research in this space to understand the importance and nature of the development of alcohol-related perceptions over time. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Sex Differences in Attributions to Positive and Negative Sexual Scenarios in Men and Women With and Without Sexual Problems: Reconsidering Stereotypes

People with sexual problems are more likely to attribute negative sexual experiences to themselves, in contrast to sexually functional individuals who attribute negative sexual experiences to external factors such as the circumstance or partner. We investigated attribution patterns in 820 men and 753 women, some of whom reported an orgasmic problem, to assess differences between the sexes and those with and without an orgasmic difficulty. Specifically, using an Internet-based approach, we compared attribution responses to four sexual scenarios, one representing a positive sexual experience and three representing negative sexual experiences. Women were more likely to attribute positive outcomes to their partner than men. Women were also more likely to attribute negative outcomes to themselves than men, but they more readily blamed their partner and circumstances for negative outcomes than men as well. Those with orgasmic problems were less willing to take credit for positive outcomes and more willing to accept blame for negative outcomes. Interaction effects between sex and orgasmic problems further highlighted differences between men's and women's attribution patterns. These results are interpreted in the context of traditional notions that men's attributions tend to be more self-serving and women's attributions more self-derogatory.

Sex differences in attribution of negative and positive traits to obese silhouettes.

40 college women ascribed more negative attributes to larger opposite-sexed figures than did 40 men.

Getting started with computers: Experience, anxiety, and relational style

This study examined sex differences, changes over time, and predictors of attrition from introductory computer classes. Males entered the classes with greater previous experience than females in programming, computer games, and miscellaneous uses. Previous programming experience was positively related to staying in computer courses. However, males with more computer game experience and females with less computer game experience were more likely to drop out. Males who were less computer anxious and females who were more computer anxious were more likely to drop out. Liking for computers and perceived experience increased over the semester for all students, but females became more anxious. Overall, sex differences in attribution for success and failure with computers were lacking. Assessments of relational style of interaction with computers showed that females who initially perceived the computer more as a tool/machine and males who initially perceived the computer less as a tool/machine were more likely to drop out. All subjects attributed more animate/human qualities to the computer with time. Suggestions for promoting general computer literacy are discussed.

Children’s Achievement-Related Beliefs Effects of Academic Area, Sex, and Achievement Level

We examined how children’s academic self-concepts, causal attributions, and perceptions of teacher feedback varied as a function of academic area, achievement level, and sex. One hundred and ninety-two 5th graders were administered a questionnaire that assessed their beliefs separately for math, reading, social studies, and science. Children viewed the feedback that they received for social studies and science as less frequent and more ambiguous than the feedback for math and reading. Because prior research suggested that sex differences in self-confidence are most likely when performance feedback has been infrequent or ambiguous, we expected sex differences in confidence primarily for social studies and science. As predicted, girls rated themselves as less smart than boys in social studies and science, but not in math or reading. We also found sex differences in children’s causal attributions, and these were consistent with prior research. These sex differences in attributions did not vary as a function of academic area. Children, in general, showed more “vulnerable” attributions for social studies and science. Finally, a number of predicted differences were found between high and low achievers. These findings increased our understanding of children’s achievement-related beliefs and supported the utility of assessing these beliefs separately for different academic areas.

Gender Differences in Self‐Serving Attributions About Sexual Experiences1

Two studies investigated sex differences in attributions about sexual experiences. Subjects were asked to provide causal explanations for satisfying and unsatisfying past experiences. Men were expected to display a greater self‐serving bias than women. This hypothesis was supported for unsatisfying but not for satisfying experiences. In both experiments, males were found to blame their partners more for unsatisfying experiences than females. Males used self‐serving attributions, assigning more responsibility to the partner than to themselves (Experiment I), whereas women displayed self‐derogatory attributions, attributing negative outcomes more to themselves than to their partners (Experiment II). Furthermore, self‐derogatory attribution patterns were correlated with unsatisfactory sexual histories in women but not in men. Implications for the treatment of sexual dysfunctions via reattribution training are discussed.

The effect of romantic and nonromantic films on perception of female friendly and seductive behavior

Two experiments investigating gender differences in perception of nonverbal seductive and friendly cues were conducted using standardized videotaped interactions. Results of the first experiment indicated no gender differences in perceptions, contradicting previous results obtained by Abbey (“Sex Differences in Attributions for Friendly Behavior: Do Males Misperceive Females' Friendliness?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1982, 42, 830–838), who used a nonstandardized interaction. Results of the second experiment indicated that exposure to romantic and nonromantic scenarios in the media may produce contrast effects primarily affecting male interpretation of female nonverbal cues.

Children's attributions for success and failure: Effects of age and attentional focus.

This study was an assessment of how children's achievement attributions were influenced by their age, attentional focus, gender, and success or failure experience. Older and younger elementary school children performed a memory task under either self-focusing or task-focusing instructions. After performance, half of the children in each condition were given success feedback and the other half failure feedback. Attributions for performance were then obtained. In the success condition, children judged effort to be the most important cause of their performance, whereas children in the failure condition attributed their performance mostly to the difficulty of the task and their inability to remember the story. Older children in the self-focus condition attributed success more to internal causes than did older children in the task-focus condition. Younger children attributed both success and failure more to luck than did older children. Few sex differences in attributions were obtained. Achievement attributions have significant consequences for subsequent achievement motivation and behavior; attributing success to one's ability and failure to lack of effort promotes positive achievement motivation and behavior, whereas attributing success to external factors such as task ease and failure to lack of ability has negative consequences (Weiner, 1979). Many researchers have assessed the development of children's attributions for achievement successes and failures (see Frieze, 1981, for a review). In general, these studies show that children under age 8 tend to confuse different causes such as ability and effort. By age 12 or 13, children's attributions seem quite similar to those of adults. Though we have learned much about general developmental changes in children's attributions, we know less about how different performance conditions influence children's attributions. One performance condition that has greatly interested so

The effects of nonverbal cues on gender differences in perceptions of sexual intent

The effects of several nonverbal cues on perceptions of male and female stimulus persons' sexuality were examined. Based on the findings of Abbey (“Sex Differences in Attributions for Friendly Behavior: Do Males Misperceive Females' Friendliness?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1982, 42, 830–838) and other investigators, we hypothesized that in general males would attribute more sexuality to both male and female targets than would females. Furthermore, we hypothesized that males' and females' perceptions of sexual intent would be most divergent in situations in which the nonverbal cues were most ambiguous (e.g., causal touch, moderate interpersonal distance). To test this hypothesis, the effects of three nonverbalcues were examined: interpersonal distance, eye contact, and touch. Males rated female targets as more seductive, sexy, and promiscuous, and expressed more sexual attraction to the opposite-sexed target, than females did for both ambiguous and nonambiguous nonverbal cues. Males' ratings of the male targets' sexuality were higher than females' ratings in two of the three studies. Also, across the three studies both female and male subjects rated the female target higher than the male target on the sexual traits. The implications of these findings for future research are discussed.

Sex Differences in Attributions of Success and Failure

Sex of the stimulus figure did not affect the attributions for success and failure in mathematics by 126 Australian students.

Attribution of responsibility for rape: The influence of observer empathy, victim resistance, and victim attractiveness

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the influence of a rape victim's physical attractiveness and resistance to rape on subjects' attributions of responsibility for the crime, certainty of the defendant's guilt, and social perceptions of the rape victim and defendant. Subjects' pretrial empathy toward rape victims and rapists was assessed by scores on the Rape Empathy Scale (RES). In addition to significant sex differences in attributions of responsibility for the incident, subjects' pretrial empathy toward rape victims and rapists was predictive of their perceptions of the rape victim, the defendant, and the rape incident. Victim resistance and attractiveness effects were significant in that subjects responded least favorably to the unattractive rape victim, particularly when she resisted the rape by fighting with her attacker. Male subjects and subjects who exhibited low empathy toward the rape victim were more responsive to subtle manipulations of victim resistance and attractiveness than were females and high RES subjects. Several explanations for these results focus on the cognitive and affective responses of subjects. The implications of the study are discussed in relation to societal attitudes toward rape and the role of sexrole stereotyping, which fosters these attitudes.

Sex differences in performance attribution and contingency judgment

In two studies, male and female subjects were given attribution measures before and after performance on a novel finger maze. Neither study revealed any sex differences in expectancy and anticipated attributions prior to maze performance. In Experiment 1, no sex differences in attributions were obtained regardless of whether the outcome was success or failure. In Experiment 2, where the outcome was made completely noncontingent on behavior, females had greater illusion of control as well as higher luck attribution. This paradoxical finding was interpreted as reflecting females' tendency to depend on external and internal attributions simultaneously.

Attributions and sex differences in achievement: Problems and new perspectives

The status of research on sex differences in attribution is reviewed in light of the articles published in this issue. The authors conclude that several widely held beliefs about sex differences in attributions may be unwarranted. Various explanations for the lack of consistent results in studies exploring situational and dispositional effects on sex differences in attributions are offered. The authors conclude that alternative attributional questions need to be raised and investigated in order to understand sex differences in achievement.

Sex differences in attributions and learned helplessness

This investigation assessed the hypothesis that girls are more likely to be learned helpless in math than boys. Students in grades 5 through 11 completed questionnaires assessing their causal attributions for success and failure in mathematics, their self-concepts of math ability, and their expectations for both current and future success in math. Results indicated that sex differences in attributions depended on the type of methodology used (open-ended or rank-ordered questions). The most consistent difference involved the differential use and ranking of ability, skills, and consistent effort. No sex differences were found in either students' perceptions of their own math ability or in their current achievement expectations. Girls, however, rated their future expectations slightly lower than did boys. Taken together, these results provide little support for the hypothesis that girls are generally more learned helpless in mathematics than are boys.

Sex differences in attributions for friendly behavior: Do males misperceive females' friendliness?

This investigation tested the hypothesis that friendliness from a member of the opposite sex might be misperceived as a sign of sexual interest. Previous research in the area of acquaintance and date rape suggests that males frequently misunderstand females' intentions. A laboratory experiment was conducted in which a male and female participated in a 5-minute conversation while a hidden male and female observed this interaction. The results indicate that there were sex differences in subjects' rating of the actors. Male actors and observers rated the female actor as being more promiscuous and seductive than female actors and observers rated her. Males were also more sexually attracted to the opposite-sex actor than females were. Furthermore, males also rated the male actor in a more sexualized fashion than females did. These results were interpreted as indicating that men are more likely to perceive the world in sexual terms and to make sexual judgments than women are. Males do seem to perceive friendliness from females as seduction, but this appears to be merely one manifestation of a broader male sexual orientation. The research described in this article grew out of the observation that females' friendly behavior is frequently misperceived by males as flirtation. Males tend to impute sexual interest to females when it is not intended. For example, one evening the author and a few of her female friends shared a table at a crowded campus bar with two male strangers. During one of the band's breaks, they struck up a friendly conversation with their male table companions. It was soon apparent that their friendliness had been misperceived by these men as a sexual invitation, and they finally had to excuse themselves from the table to avoid an awkward scene. What had been intended as platonic friendliness had been perceived as sexual interest. After discussions with several other women verified that this experience was not unique, the author began to consider several related, researchable issues. Do women similarly misjudge men's intentions or is this bias limPortions of this manuscript were based on the author's

Sex differences in attributions for friendly behavior: Do males misperceive females' friendliness?

Sex differences in attributions for friendly behavior: Do males misperceive females' friendliness?

Relationships between depression and causal attributions about stressful life events

Cognitive hypotheses about depression derived from the reformulated learned helplessness theory were tested in students' attributional analyses of the causes of their own recent stressful life events. Results supported the hypothesis that depression as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory is associated with certain causal cognitions, and these cognitions were predictive of the intensity, chronicity, and generality of depression 2 months after the initial testing. Cognitions especially related to depression emphasized perceived low control over causes of events and globality of the causes. Attribution theory-based predictions that internal locus of causality and stability would be related to naturally occurring depression were not supported. In addition, there were no sex differences in attributions. While the results support the possible role of cognitive mediators between life events and depressive reactions, they also suggest that depression-related causal analyses may vary across situations and populations.

Sex differences in attribution: A Norwegian study

A quasi‐experimental study was conducted to examine the effect of sex on actor and observer attributions of success and failure. It was predicted that, contrary to American results in similar studies, Norwegian males and females would tend to be largely similar in their attribution of success and failure. Only same‐sex attributions were explored. Subjects were asked to attribute causality along a set of six standard causal dimensions. The results showed that sex had a relatively minor effect on attributions, compared to the effects of attributor role and task outcome. Only in their attributions of ability did men and women differ to some degree in that women were more likely to use lack of ability as an explanation for own failure. The study concludes that cross‐cultural research is needed in order to better assess the normative impact on attribution.

Competence, guilt, and victimization: Sex differences in attribution of causality in television dramas

Sex differences in attribution of causality are investigated in three types of television programs: prime-time family, violent, and daytime serial shows. Both frequency and type of causal statements were studied, using DeCharm's conceptualization of personal causation as origin-like (internal to the self) or pawn-like (external to the self). There were striking sex differences in violent programs, with males modeling more origin behavior and females modeling more pawn behavior. In soap operas there were no sex differences, but both origin and pawn ideas were expressed in terms of personal responsibility, with fewer references to more competent origin behaviors such as goal setting, planned decision making, or self-confidence. These findings have implications for differential socialization of competent coping skills for males and females.

Sex differences in attribution for occupational success

A study was conducted to both test and extend Deaux's (Sex: A perspective on the attribution process. In J. H. Harvey, W. J. Ickes, & R. F. Kidd, (Eds.), New directions in attribution research, Volume 1. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum, 1976 ) expectancy model of sex-linked differences in attribution for success. Specifically, it was hypothesized that female occupational subjects would attribute success more to the unstable causes of effort and luck, as well as the stable internal cause of interpersonal skill, while male occupational subjects would make higher attributions to the stable causes of ability and task ease. This hypothesis was supported for the causes of effort, luck, and task ease. Additionally, a comparison between sex differences in attribution occurring within a nonpersonal vs. personal frame of reference showed three of the expected sex differences in attribution to be stronger in the latter condition. Moreover, it was shown that this difference was largely accounted for by changes in females' rather than males' attributions. A final hypothesis, namely, that males would perceive themselves as more successful in their occupations than females, was not confirmed.