Serial Reaction Time Task Research Articles

Post-error slowing during motor sequence learning under extrinsic and intrinsic error feedback conditions.

Post-error slowing, described as an error-corrective index of response binding during motor sequence learning, has only been demonstrated in the serial reaction time task under conditions where extrinsic error feedback is presented. The present experiment investigated whether post-error slowing is dependent on, or is influenced by, extrinsic error feedback. Thirty participants (14 females, Mage = 21.9 ± 1.8 years) completed the serial reaction time task with or without presentation of extrinsic error feedback. Post-error slowing was observed following response error whether feedback was presented or not. However, presentation of extrinsic error feedback increased post-error slowing across practice and extended the number of responses that were slowed following an error. There was no evidence of feedback effects on motor sequence learning or explicit awareness. Instead, feedback appeared to function as a performance factor that reduced response error rates relative to no feedback conditions. These findings illustrate that post-error slowing in motor sequence learning is not reliant on or a result of presentation of extrinsic error information. More specific to the serial reaction time task paradigm, the present findings demonstrate that the common practice of presenting error feedback is not necessary for investigating motor sequence learning unless the aim is to maintain low error rate. However, doing so might inflate reaction time in latter training blocks.

Effect of habitual physical activity on motor performance and prefrontal cortex activity during implicit motor learning.

Acute bouts of exercise have been shown to improve motor learning. However, whether these benefits can be observed from habitual physical activity (PA) levels remains unclear and has important implications around PA guidelines to promote motor learning across the lifespan. This study investigated the effect of habitual PA levels on brain activity within the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during procedural motor skill acquisition. Twenty-six right-handed healthy young adults had physical activity levels quantified by calculating the metabolic equivalent of task (METs) in minutes per week, derived from the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) over the DLPFC was recorded to measure neural activation during a serial reaction time task (SRTT). Behavioural indicators of procedural motor skill acquisition were quantified as reaction time and accuracy of correct trials during the SRTT. DLPFC activation was characterised as task-related changes in oxyhaemoglobin (∆[HbO2]). Findings showed that higher PA levels were associated with improvements in reaction time during procedural motor skill acquisition (p = 0.03). However, no significant effects of PA levels on accuracy or ∆[HbO2] during procedural motor skill acquisition were observed. These findings show that while habitual PA may promote motor performance in young adults, this is not reflected by changes in the DLPFC area of the brain.

Exploring the cognitive effects of hearing loss in adult rats: Implications for visuospatial attention, social behavior, and prefrontal neural activity

Age-related hearing loss in humans has been associated with cognitive decline, though the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. We investigated the long-term effects of hearing loss on attention, impulse control, social interaction, and neural activity within medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) subregions.Hearing loss was induced in adult rats via intracochlear neomycin injection (n = 13), with non-operated rats as controls (n = 10). Rats were tested for motor activity (open field), coordination (Rotarod), and social interaction (including ultrasonic vocalization, USV) before surgery and at weeks 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 24 post-surgery. From week 8 on, rats were trained in the five-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) to assess visuospatial attention and impulse control. Finally, oscillatory neuronal activity in mPFC subregions was recorded with multielectrode arrays during anesthesia, followed by immunohistological staining for NeuN+ and Parvalbumin+ cells.Deafened rats were more active than controls, whereas social interaction and USV were temporarily reduced. They also had difficulties to learn the concept of the 5-CSRTT paradigm and made more incorrect responses. Electrophysiology showed decreased power in theta, alpha, and beta frequency, and enhanced high gamma band in the mPFC in deafened rats, which was most pronounced in the cingulate subregion (Cg1). The number of NeuN+ and Parvalbumin+ cells, however, did not differ between groups.The behavioral deficits together with the altered neuronal activity found in the Cg1 subregion of the mPFC in adult deafened rats may be used as an endophenotype to elucidate the mechanisms behind the cognitive decline seen in older patients with hearing loss.

Motor sequence-specific learning-induced corticospinal plasticity is biased towards sensorimotor mu rhythm peak phases.

Motor cortical (M1) transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) interventions increase corticospinal output and improve motor learning when delivered during sensorimotor mu rhythm trough but not peak phases, suggesting that the mechanisms supporting motor learning may be most active during mu trough phases. Based on these findings, we predicted that motor sequence learning-related corticospinal plasticity would be most evident when measured during mu trough phases. Healthy adults were assigned to either a sequence or random group. Participants in the sequence group practiced the implicit serial reaction time task (SRTT), which contained an embedded, repeating 12-item sequence. Participants in the random group practiced a version of the SRTT that contained no sequence. We measured mu phase-independent and mu phase-dependent MEP amplitudes using EEG-informed single-pulse TMS before, immediately, and 30 minutes after the SRTT in both groups. All participants performed a retention test one hour after SRTT acquisition. In both groups, mu phase-independent MEP amplitudes increased following SRTT acquisition, but the pattern of mu phase-dependent MEP amplitude increases after SRTT acquisition differed between groups. Relative to the random group, the sequence group showed greater increases in peak-specific corticospinal output 30 minutes after SRTT acquisition. Contrary to our original hypothesis, results revealed that motor sequence learning recruits peak-rather than trough-specific neurophysiological mechanisms. These findings suggest that mu peak phases may provide protected time windows for motor memory consolidation and demonstrate the presence of a mu phase-dependent motor learning mechanism in the human brain.

Comparing the effects of anodal and cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation of primary motor cortex at varying intensities on motor learning in healthy young adults.

Inconsistent results are observed in the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) with different montages on motor learning. This study aimed to compare the effects of anodal and cathodal tDCS (c-tDCS) over primary motor cortex (M1) at different intensities on motor learning in healthy young adults. The participants were randomly divided into: (1) 1mA M1 c-tDCS, (2) 1mA M1 anodal tDCS (a-tDCS), (3) 2mA M1 c-tDCS, (4) 2mA M1 a-tDCS and (5) M1 sham tDCS groups. The groups received 20-min stimulation with serial reaction time task (SRTT) incidentally, while the tDCS was turned off after 30 s in the sham tDCS group. Response time (RT) and error rate (ER) during SRTT were assessed prior, during and 72 h after the intervention. The results of the paired t-test indicated that online learning occurred in all groups (p< 0.05), except in M1 c-tDCS (1mA) (p> 0.05). One-way ANOVA analysis also indicated that there were differences in offline learning (RT (F(DF) =5.19(4); p< 0.001; and ER (F(DF) =9(4), p< 0.0001) among groups, with more offline learning in 1mA M1 a-tDCS, 2mA M1 c-tDCS and 2mA M1 a-tDCS groups (p< 0.05). On the other hand, the 1mA M1 c-tDCS group did not indicate any consolidation effect or even a trend toward negative offline learning. M1 a-tDCS with different intensities and also 2mA M1 c-tDCS may be helpful for the enhancement of motor learning in young healthy adults. This study enhances our understanding of tDCS intensity and polarity effects on motor learning, with potential for optimizing therapeutic protocols.

Attentional processing in the rat dorsal posterior parietal cortex

The human posterior parietal cortex (PPC) is known to support sustained attention. Specifically, top-down attention is generally processed in dorsal regions while bottom-up regulation occurs more ventrally. In rodent models, however, it is still unclear whether the PPC is required for sustained attention, or whether there is a similar functional dissociation between anatomical regions. Consequently, the aim of this study was to investigate the contribution of the rodent dorsal PPC (dPPC) in sustained attention. We used the five-choice serial reaction time task (5CSRTT) and compared rats with neurotoxic dPPC lesions to sham operated rats. We found that rats with dPPC lesions were less accurate and took longer to make correct choices, indicating impaired attention and reduced processing speed. This effect, however, was limited to the first few days of post-operative testing. After an apparent recovery, omissions became elevated in the lesion group, which, in the absence of reduced motivation and mobility, can also be interpreted as impaired attention. In subsequent challenge probes, the lesion group displayed globally elevated latency to make a correct response, indicating reduced processing speed. No differences in premature responses or perseverative responses were observed at any time, demonstrating that dPPC lesions did not affect impulsivity and compulsivity. This pattern of behavior suggests that while intact dPPC supports goal-driven (top-down) modulation of attention, it likely does not play a central role in processing stimulus-driven (bottom-up) attention. Furthermore, compensatory mechanisms can support sustained attention in the absence of a fully functioning dPPC, although this occurs at the expense of processing speed. Our results inform the literature by confirming that rodent PPC is involved in regulating sustained attention and providing preliminary evidence for a functional dissociation between top-down and bottom-up attentional processing.

Assessing the stability of responding of male mice in the touchscreen 5 choice serial reaction time task: Focus on premature responding.

The five-choice serial reaction time task (5CSRTT) is a test of attention that provides a well-validated ancillary measure of impulsive action, measured by premature responses. The task has been adapted for mice in touchscreen operant boxes, which is thought to offer improved test-retest reliability. Few studies have assessed the long-term stability of performance, including premature responding in this version of the task. We used the touchscreen 5CSRTT to conduct longitudinal testing of stability of premature responding following repeated behavioral and pharmacological manipulations. Male C57BL/6J mice were trained on a baseline version of the 5CSRTT. They were then tested on versions of the task in which the stimulus duration was reduced, and inter-trial intervals were elongated or varied within-session. Premature responding was subsequently tested following administration of pharmacological agents known to bi-directionally affect attention and impulsive action-cocaine, atomoxetine, and yohimbine. Mice were lastly re-tested 6 months later using the 5CSRTT with elongated inter-trial intervals. A reduced stimulus duration impacted attention, with reduced accuracy and increased omissions, but had no effect on premature responding. Both elongating and varying the inter-trial interval within-session increased premature responses. Mice showed similar and stable levels of increased premature responding 6 months later. Cocaine increased premature responding, though less than previously reported in rats. Atomoxetine reduced premature responding. Yohimbine had no effect on premature responding in the baseline task but decreased premature responding when tested using an elongated inter-trial interval. Overall, these results highlight that the touch screen adaptation of the 5CSRTT is an effective method for longitudinal testing of attention and impulsive action and remains sensitive to performance changes arising from repeated pharmacological and behavioral challenges.

Assessing processing-based measures of implicit statistical learning: Three serial reaction time experiments do not reveal artificial grammar learning.

Implicit statistical learning, whereby predictable relationships between stimuli are detected without conscious awareness, is important for language acquisition. However, while this process is putatively implicit, it is often assessed using measures that require explicit reflection and conscious decision making. Here, we conducted three experiments combining an artificial grammar learning paradigm with a serial reaction time (SRT-AGL) task, to measure statistical learning of adjacent and nonadjacent dependencies implicitly, without conscious decision making. Participants viewed an array of six visual stimuli and were presented with a sequence of three auditory (nonsense words, Expt. 1; names of familiar objects, Expt. 2) or visual (abstract shapes, Expt. 3) cues and were asked to click on the corresponding visual stimulus as quickly as possible. In each experiment, the final stimulus in the sequence was predictable based on items earlier in the sequence. Faster responses to this predictable final stimulus compared to unpredictable stimuli would provide evidence of implicit statistical learning, without requiring explicit decision making or conscious reflection. Despite previous positive results (Christiansen et al. 2009 and Misyak et al. 2010) we saw little evidence of implicit statistical learning in any of the experiments, suggesting that in this case, these SRT-AGL tasks were not an effective measure implicit statistical learning.

Early life stress induced sex-specific changes in behavior is paralleled by altered locus coeruleus physiology in BALB/cJ mice

Adverse childhood experiences have been associated with many neurodevelopmental and affective disorders including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and generalized anxiety disorder, with more exposures increasing negative risk. Sex and genetic background are biological variables involved in adverse psychiatric outcomes due to early life trauma. Females in general have an increased prevalence of stress-related psychopathologies beginning after adolescence, indicative of adolescence being a female-specific sensitive period. To understand the underlying neuronal mechanisms potentially responsible for this relationship between genetic background, sex, stress/trauma, and cognitive/affective behaviors, we assessed behavioral and neuronal changes in a novel animal model of early life stress exposure. Male and female BALB/cJ mice that express elevated basal anxiety-like behaviors and differences in monoamine signaling-associated genes, were exposed to an early life variable stress protocol that combined deprivation in early life with unpredictability in adolescence. Stress exposure produced hyperlocomotion and attention deficits (5-choice serial reaction time task) in male and female mice along with female-specific increased anxiety-like behavior. These behavioral changes were paralleled by reduced excitability of locus coeruleus (LC) neurons, due to resting membrane potential hyperpolarization in males and a female-specific increase in action potential delay time. These data describe a novel interaction between sex, genetic background, and early life stress that results in behavioral changes in clinically relevant domains and potential underlying mechanistic lasting changes in physiological properties of neurons in the LC.

Is there a relationship between resting state connectivity within large-scale functional networks and implicit motor learning impairments in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder?

The aim of this exploratory study is to evaluate whether implicit motor learning impairments observed in schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BD) are associated with the resting state functional connectivity (rs-FC) within large-scale functional networks. The study involved 30 BD patients, 30 SZ patients and 30 healthy controls (HC). Implicit motor learning was evaluated with the use of serial reaction time task (SRTT). Prior to the training patients underwent resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI) examination. We have measured rs-FC within salience network (SAN), default mode network (DMN), frontoparietal network (FPN), sensorimotor network (SMN), limbic network (LN) and visual network (VIN) and their associations with implicit motor learning indices. rs-FC within SAN, DMN, FPN, SMN, LN and VIN reveal no significant association with implicit motor learning indices. BD, SZ and HC groups did not differ in terms of rs-FC within abovementioned networks. We have shown that in the studied groups SRTT performance could not be predicted by rs-FC within the major large-scale functional networks, i.e., SMN, FPN, VIN, LN, SAN and DMN. The observation of the independence of implicit motor learning from the initial activity of these systems is important for proper understanding of neuronal underpinnings of this process and planning further neuroimaging research on this topic.

Multitasking Induced Contextual Blindness.

To examine the impact of secondary task performance on contextual blindness arising from the suppression and masking of temporal and spatial sequence learning. Dual-task scenarios can lead to a diminished ability to use environmental cues to guide attention, a phenomenon that is related to multitasking-induced inattentional blindness. This research aims to extend the theoretical understanding of how secondary tasks can impair attention and memory processes in sequence learning and access. We conducted three experiments. In Experiment 1, we used a serial reaction time task to investigate the impact of a secondary tone counting task on temporal sequence learning. In Experiment 2, we used a contextual cueing task to examine the effects of dual-task performance on spatial cueing. In Experiment 3, we integrated and extended these concepts to a simulated driving task. Across the experiments, the performance of a secondary task consistently suppressed (all experiments) and masked task learning (experiments 1 and 3). In the serial response and spatial search tasks, dual-task conditions reduced the accrual of sequence knowledge and impaired knowledge expression. In the driving simulation, similar patterns of learning suppression from multitasking were also observed. The findings suggest that secondary tasks can significantly suppress and mask sequence learning in complex tasks, leading to a form of contextual blindness characterized by impairments in the ability to use environmental cues to guide attention and anticipate future events. These findings have implications for both skill acquisition and skilled performance in complex domains such as driving, aviation, manufacturing, and human-computer interaction.

Implicit and Explicit Sequence Learning in Adults With Developmental Language Disorder.

Developmental language disorder (DLD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that impacts approximately 7% of the population and is characterized by unexplained deficits in expressive and/or receptive components of language. A common procedural learning task, serial reaction time (SRT), has been used to develop models of the basis of DLD. However, paradigms involve differing levels of implicit and explicit learning during this task, muddying interpretations of the data. Here, we tested adults with DLD on implicit and explicit SRT tasks to better understand implicit and explicit procedural learning in this population. We hypothesized that adults with DLD would demonstrate reduced learning on only the implicit SRT task, as alternate explicit neural mechanisms could lead to equivalent performance on the explicit task. Fifty participants (25 with DLD and 25 with typical language) completed implicit and explicit SRT tasks, measuring their ability to learn visually presented 10-element sequences. Group differences were evaluated on sequence learning, error rates, and explicit recall of the sequence after learning. Sequence learning was the same between the groups on both tasks. However, individuals with DLD showed increased errors and significantly worse recall of the explicitly learned sequence. Results suggest that sequence learning may be intact in this population, while aspects of explicit learning and motoric responses are impaired. Results are interpreted in light of a neurobiological model of DLD. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.26210651.

Top-down and bottom-up oscillatory dynamics regulate implicit visuomotor sequence learning.

Implicit visuomotor sequence learning is crucial for acquiring skills that result in automated behaviors. The oscillatory dynamics underpinning this learning process are not well understood. To address this gap, the current study employed electroencephalography with a medium-density array (64 electrodes) to investigate oscillatory activity associated with implicit visuomotor sequence learning in the Serial Reaction Time task. In the task, participants unknowingly learn a series of finger movements. Eighty-five healthy adults participated in the study. Analyses revealed that theta activity at the vertex and alpha/beta activity over the motor areas decreased over the course of learning. No associations between alpha/beta and theta power were observed. These findings are interpreted within a dual-process framework: midline theta activity is posited to regulate top-down attentional processes, whereas beta activity from motor areas underlies the bottom-up encoding of sensory information from movement. From this model, we suggest that during implicit visuomotor sequence learning, top-down processes become disengaged (indicated by a reduction in theta activity), and modality specific bottom-up processes encode the motor sequence (indicated by a reduction in alpha/beta activity).

Cholesterol profiling reveals 7β-hydroxycholesterol as a pathologically relevant peripheral biomarker of Alzheimer's disease.

Cholesterol homeostasis is associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Despite the multitude of cholesterol metabolites, little is known about which metabolites are directly involved in AD pathogenesis and can serve as its potential biomarkers. To identify "hit" metabolites, steroid profiling was conducted in mice with different age, diet, and genotype and also in humans with normal cognition, mild cognitive impairment, and AD using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Then, using one of the "hit" molecules (7β-hydroxycholesterol; OHC), molecular and histopathological experiment and behavioral testing were conducted in normal mice following its intracranial stereotaxic injection to see whether this molecule drives AD pathogenesis and causes cognitive impairment. The serum levels of several metabolites, including 7β-OHC, were increased by aging in the 3xTg-AD unlike normal mice. Consistently, the levels of 7β-OHC were increased in the hairs of patients with AD and were correlated with clinical severity. We found that 7β-OHC directly affects AD-related pathophysiology; intrahippocampal injection of 7β-OHC induced astrocyte and microglial cell activation, increased the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-1β, IL-6), and enhanced amyloidogenic pathway. Mice treated with 7β-OHC also exhibited deficits in memory and frontal/executive functions assessed by object recognition and 5-choice serial reaction time task, respectively. Our results suggest that 7β-OHC could serve as a convenient, peripheral biomarker of AD. As directly involved in AD pathogenesis, 7β-OHC assay may help actualize personalized medicine in a way to identify an at-risk subgroup as a candidate population for statin-based AD treatment.

Online Anticipatory Cues During Practice Disrupt Intentional and Incidental Sequence Learning

In the Serial Reaction Time Task, participants respond to several stimuli usually being unaware that the stimuli follow a predefined sequence while still learning the sequence. In the present study, we aimed to clearly separate explicit intentional learning from implicit incidental learning by either informing participants about all details of the sequence or not informing participants about the existence of the sequence. Further, we explored the influence of anticipatory cues during practice while anticipatory cues were either presented (extrinsically triggered anticipation) or not presented (self-reliant intrinsic anticipation). Participants were tested before and after practice in the Practice Sequence and a Control Sequence. To test automatization, tests were performed in Single-Task and Dual-Task Blocks. Results showed that after learning with explicit instructions, participants memorized the sequence more deeply and executed the sequence faster than after learning without explicit instructions. Further, by learning with anticipatory cues, participants memorized the sequence less deeply and executed the sequence slower than by learning without anticipatory cues. Unexpectedly, automatization was sequence-unspecific and independent of the practice conditions. In conclusion, detailed explicit prior information about the sequence facilitates sequence learning while anticipatory online cues during practice hamper sequence learning.

Exploring brain plasticity in developmental dyslexia through implicit sequence learning.

Developmental dyslexia (DD) is defined as difficulties in learning to read even with normal intelligence and adequate educational guidance. Deficits in implicit sequence learning (ISL) abilities have been reported in children with DD. We investigated brain plasticity in a group of 17 children with DD, compared with 18 typically developing (TD) children, after two sessions of training on a serial reaction time (SRT) task with a 24-h interval. Our outcome measures for the task were: a sequence-specific implicit learning measure (ISL), entailing implicit recognition and learning of sequential associations; and a general visuomotor skill learning measure (GSL). Gray matter volume (GMV) increased, and white matter volume (WMV) decreased from day 1 to day 2 in cerebellar areas regardless of group. A moderating effect of group was found on the correlation between WMV underlying the left precentral gyrus at day 2 and the change in ISL performance, suggesting the use of different underlying learning mechanisms in DD and TD children during the ISL task. Moreover, DD had larger WMV in the posterior thalamic radiation compared with TD, supporting previous reports of atypical development of this structure in DD. Further studies with larger sample sizes are warranted to validate these results.

Investigating gene-environment interaction on attention in a double-hit model for Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental behavioral disorder characterized by social, communicative, and motor deficits. There is no single etiological cause for ASD, rather, there are various genetic and environmental factors that increase the risk for ASD. It is thought that some of these factors influence the same underlying neural mechanisms, and that an interplay of both genetic and environmental factors would better explain the pathogenesis of ASD. To better appreciate the influence of genetic-environment interaction on ASD-related behaviours, rats lacking a functional copy of the ASD-linked gene Cntnap2 were exposed to maternal immune activation (MIA) during pregnancy and assessed in adolescence and adulthood. We hypothesized that Cntnap2 deficiency interacts with poly I:C MIA to aggravate ASD-like symptoms in the offspring. In this double-hit model, we assessed attention, a core deficit in ASD due to prefrontal cortical dysfunction. We employed a well-established attentional paradigm known as the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5CSRTT). Cntnap2-/- rats exhibited greater perseverative responses which is indicative of repetitive behaviors. Additionally, rats exposed to poly I:C MIA exhibited premature responses, a marker of impulsivity. The rats exposed to both the genetic and environmental challenge displayed an increase in impulsive activity; however, this response was only elicited in the presence of an auditory distractor. This implies that exacerbated symptomatology in the double-hit model may situation-dependent and not generally expressed.

Bidirectional relationship between attentional deficits and escalation of nicotine intake in male rats.

People with tobacco addiction have deficits in cognition, in particular deficits in attention. It is not clear however, whether deficits are a cause or a consequence, or both, of chronic nicotine use. Here we set out a series of experiments in rats to address this question and, more specifically, to assess the effects of exposure to and withdrawal from chronic nicotine self-administration on attentional performance. Animals were trained in a 5-choice serial reaction time task to probe individual attentional performance and, then, were given access to a fixed versus increasing dose of intravenous nicotine for self-administration, a differential dose procedure known to induce two between-session patterns of nicotine intake: a stable versus escalation pattern. Attentional performance was measured daily before, during and also 24-h after chronic access to the differential dose procedure of nicotine self-administration. We found that pre-existing individual variation in attentional performance predicts individual vulnerability to develop escalation of nicotine intake. Moreover, while chronic nicotine self-administration increases attention, withdrawal from nicotine intake escalation induces attentional deficits, a withdrawal effect that is dose-dependently reversed by acute nicotine. Together, these results suggest that pre-existing individual variation in attentional performance predicts individual vulnerability to develop escalation of nicotine intake, and that part of the motivation for using nicotine during escalation might be to alleviate withdrawal-induced attentional deficits.

The effectiveness of exergames intervention on motor memory and inhibitory control of children with executive function disorders: A randomized control trial

The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of exergames in improving the motor memory and inhibitory control of children with executive functions disorder. Children, selected by simple random method were divided into two groups: experimental (n = 16) and control (n = 16). Circle drawing task, and The Serial Reaction Time Task were used to collect and analyze data. The current study is a randomized control trial (RCT) type of research with a two-group pretest, post-test, and follow up –test design in terms of the purpose of applied research and the method of data collection. T-test results for the differences in post- test mean scores between the two groups in motor memory and inhibitory control showed that the treatment group outperformed the control group. There were statistical differences between pre and post measures in favor of post test, and between pre and follow up measures in favor of follow up test, but no statistical differences between post and follow up test. This study demonstrates that it is possible to enhance motor memory and inhibitory control of children with executive functions disorder using exergames intervention.

Do Implicit Learning Deficit and Dyslexia Go Together? An fMRI and Behavioral Study

AbstractWhat is the relationship between literacy skills and implicit learning? To address previous mixed findings, we compared school‐aged readers, typical (CON, n = 54) and with dyslexia (DYS, n = 53), in relation to their performance on a serial reaction time task. For the first time, we also included an isolated spelling deficit group (ISD, n = 30) to control for distinctive effects of reading and spelling deficits. A linear reaction times analysis did not reveal between‐group differences in implicit learning. However, further examination revealed that most CON (65%) and ISD (63%) were implicit learners, whereas most DYS were nonlearners (64%). Brain activity showed differences in early learning phases: CON learners and DYS nonlearners activated the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and left insula more than other groups. Our findings imply that implicit learning is more frequently disrupted in children with dyslexia than in typical readers, and that activation of the left IFG and insula contributes to effective learning in the latter group but it does not in the former.