Serbian King Research Articles

The coffin-reliquary of the holy Serbian king Stefan of Dečani (fourteenth century): wood, pigments and metal surfaces

The coffin-reliquary for the relics of the holy Serbian king Stefan Uroš III of Dečani has been made around 1343 as a rectangular chest with a gable cover. The present study aimed to identify the wood this coffin-reliquary was made, as well as the pigments and metals found on its surface. The combination of anatomical traits (diffuse-porosity, distinct helical thickenings in vessels, simple perforation plates, 3- to 4-seriate noded rays and diffuse-in-aggregates axial parenchyma) showed that the wood belongs to linden, i.e., to the botanical genus Tilia L. (Malvaceae). The linden is one of the sacred trees in Serbian culture, and its wood could also be used due to its ease for joinery. X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF analyzer) was used for in situ determination of the material chemistry of the pigments, as well as the metals on the wooden surfaces of the coffin. Their elemental composition showed that wooden coffin-reliquary was painted with vermilion, malachite or copper resinate, orpiment, and lead white, while metal surfaces were shown to be gold and silver. Unlike a commonly used palette of earthy pigments, these coloring matters belong to precious noble pigments.

STEFAN PRVOVENČANI: PRVI SRPSKI KRALj I DRUGI SRPSKI BIOGRAF U RECEPTIVNOJ MISLI XX VEKA

In literary studies during the 20th century, special attention was paid to biographies, as the most important group of Serbian old literature. Old Serbian biographies, apart from belonging to hagiographic works, can be viewed as historic, which makes them the main monuments of the past. They contain data from both world and Serbian history, which is a valuable material for literary and artistic creativity. The literary work of the first Serbian king and the second Serbian biographer was studied in literary critiques of the 20th century. The character of the king, as well as his literary work, were established through the studies of literary critics who dealt with the king’s life and work: Pavle Popović, who was only interested in the king’s Life of Saint Simeon; Đorđe Trifunović and Dimitrije Bogdanović, who analyzed the king’s legal texts; Milan Kašanin, who noticed the ideological elements in Stefan’s description of his father’s life.

Između izuzetnosti i tradicije - slike sabora i Tajne večere i posveta crkve u Sopoćanima

The paper examines a part of the iconographic program in the narthex of the representative church, endowed by the Serbian king Uroš I and dedicated to the Holy Trinity. With its layout, the program is linked to the central field of the wall above the entrance to the nave and bears the characteristics of the focal point of the corresponding whole. It includes a thematic segment with a group of representations that, based on today's knowledge of painted material, can be classified as novelties and exceptional solutions. The cycle of Ecumenical Councils, with the attached depiction of a Serbian council, and the Last Supper, as the core of the group, are viewed from an angle from which they were not illuminated before. The unusual selection of scenes and the unique composition of the thematic group become clearer when one considers the scenes' place on the line that connects three important 'points' of Sopoćani's spatial and programmatic structure on the west-east axis. The 'council wall', with the Last Supper in its 'heart' communicates topographically, visually and semantically with the representation of Pentecost, which signalled the 'identity of the holy place' on the original 'face' of the building in Sopoćani (altered by later painting), at the entrance to the narthex. Moreover, the painted wall is in an equally multiple (topographical, visual, and semantic) correlation with the themes that mark the iconographic program in the sanctuary and around the opening leading into it. Apart from the repeated representation of the Pentecost, this time with a position on the wall field above the opening of the sanctuary apse, and apart from the typological representation of the Holy Trinity, situated in the eastern half of the south choir's vault, the representations in the central part of the apse are particularly relevant for observations about the parallelism and special complementarity of the themes in the sanctuary and the narthex. This is a unity consisting of a 'liturgical' variant of the Last Supper (i.e., Communion of the Apostles) and two scenes of the Appearance of the Risen Christ to the Apostles, identified with the theme of the Sending out of the Apostles-all in the same register-as well as the composition of Officiating Church Fathers in the register below, which as their coevals also includes archbishops of the Serbian Church, positioned immediately below the rendering of the Apostolic Mission. The resulting findings of the present study is the existence of a special connection of the thematic repertoire with the dedication of the church and the reception of that connection as a kind of starting point in the process of envisaging and shaping a whole with a multi-layered meaning. As it appears, a conventional framework was consciously chosen and used as an 'undercover' for additional, daring allusions.

Poseta kralja Petra I Karađorđevića Carigradu 1910. godine

The visit of King Petar I Karađorđević to the Turkish sultan is one of the eight visits in modern Serbian history. Seven meetings of Serbian rulers with sultans took place in Constantinople, except for one that took place in Bulgaria. In the visits made before 1878, the Serbian rulers went as vassals. The meeting between the Serbian king and Sultan Mehmed V Rešad in 1910 was the third in a row since Serbia became an independent state. King Petar I Karađorđević spent the second half of March and the first half of April 1910 travelling. First, he visited Russia, then Constantinople, Mount Athos, and finally Thessaloniki. The trip lasted a little over 24 days, six of which he spent in Constantinople. The Serbian delegation led by the king was warmly received by the sultan, the common people, and the Christian population living in the Turkish capital. Upon their return, the members of the delegation were convinced that Turkey would remain on the path of improving Serbian-Turkish relations, friendly agreement, and strengthening of economic relations. This intention was highlighted in the official statement of the Porte published on the occasion of the visit of the Serbian king. In the announcement, it was expressly emphasized that a complete agreement was reached at the conferences of the foreign ministers of the two countries and that the Turkish side will grant Serbian wishes for strengthening economic and trade relations. It was of great importance for the Kingdom of Serbia to remove the obstacles that existed until that time regarding the construction of the Adriatic railway. In addition, practical results were achieved because Turkish officials expressed their readiness for the greatest possible benefits that would contribute to the export of Serbian goods through Thessaloniki. The visit to Constantinople brought success in the issues regarding religion as well, because after four years of resistance, the Patriarchate and the Synod, just before the king's arrival, accepted the election of the Serb Varnava Rosić as bishop of the Veles-Debar eparchy. The meeting of the two rulers received great attention in the diplomatic circles of European countries, especially Austria-Hungary. The relations between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire, apart from the economic aspect, soon fell into the shadows due to the Albanian riots and rebellions that engulfed the entire Kosovo vilayet. In that case too, the Serbian state tried not to interfere in Turkey's internal affairs.

Srpski narodonosni sloj u savremenoj Republici Severna Makedonija (teritorija Stare Srbije i Makedonije)

The paper presents a historical cross-section of social, military, ethnic, and political conditions in Southeastern Europe, i.e. Balkans, more precisely in the area of Old Serbia and Macedonia, parts of today's Bulgaria, Turkey and neighboring areas. The historical course of a long duration was followed, from the pre-Nemanjic period to the Balkan wars of 1912/1913. years. Special attention is given to the Serbian ethnic group in the area of Old Serbia and Macedonia, which today covers the territory of North Macedonia. The paper lists the main historical events that connect the Serbs and their state with this area, and it primarily mentions the Serbian people, i.e. the Serbian ethnic stratum, as well as important events that speak of the history of Serbian statehood, such as the fact that the Serbian king Milutin chose Skopje as the Serbian capital, and Dušan was crowned Serbian emperor in Skopje (1346). Special attention is devoted to the depiction of the struggle between Serbs and Bulgarians who, after receiving the Exarchate (1870), worked intensively on the Bulgarianization of these Serbian areas with the use of terror, violence and murders of prominent Serbian priests and individuals from Serbian society.

Fresko-kompozicija Georgija Mitrofanovića sa predstavama srednjovekovnih vladara u južnoj apsidi hilandarske trpezarije

The composition with representations of medieval rulers is a unique structure within the fresco-ensemble of the Hilandar refectory, which was signed by the painter Georgije Mitrofanović in 1621/1622, replacing the previous, three centuries older works. It depicts Serbian King Milutin and the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos in a paraphrased version of the solution found in medieval portraits within the narthex of the Catholicon of the Monastery. With some modifications, it was incorporated into a new programmatic context, together with figures of Saint Simon the Monk (most likely representing the former King Uroš I) and Saint Stefan Dečanski. The formation of the latter pair is based on iconographic patterns that combine the initial theme of the pious rulers' patronage with motifs of martyrdom and unwavering faith. The new visual ensemble, featuring figures of pious and orthodox rulers from the medieval past, is completed by the insertion of the symbol of the cross between them and by placing all the figures under the protection and blessing of Christ, the Angel of Great Counsel. Why did the creator of this pictorial program connect the bygone rulers, patrons of the monastery, with a distinctive, non-traditional representation of Christ? How does the passage of time since the medieval period affect the reception of this iconographic group? What does the medallion with the cross and Christogram signify in the given arrangement? These and similar questions, mostly overlooked in previous discussions focused on the restoration aspect of Mitrofanović's work, stem from the endeavour to understand what was achieved through the characteristics and circumstances of the era in which the refectory was repainted, particularly in the context of the challenges faced by the Orthodox community within the then Ottoman state.

Camblakov opis gradnje dečanskog hrama - njegove osobenosti i uzori

In describing the life and deeds of Serbian Holy King Stefan of Dečani (1322-1331), the author of the second biography of the Serbian king and abbot of the Dečani Monastery, Grigorije Camblak (c.1364-1419/1420) gives an account of the construction of the Holy King's endowment dedicated to Christ Pantokrator (Figs. 1-2). He describes in detail the way in which the marble blocks of the church were carved with great skill, prepared and perfectly inserted into the overall structure of the building. He states, "...and the stones are wonderfully and most artfully joined together, so that it seems as if the face of the whole church is one stone wonderfully joined together with skill, so that it seems as if one piece of stone, appearing in an unspeakable beauty…since it is a perfectly carved stone and testifies to the dignity of those who created it" (Camblak, 1936, p. 23; Trifunović, 1985, p. 183). The paper notes that the quoted description of the church construction emphatically represents learned ancient literary topos used to describe the most representative architectural monuments, especially those made of marble and deals with the origin and tradition of this specific way of describing the building construction.

The Charter of Budva – a source of the urban law of medieval Europe

The article is devoted to highlighting the sources of codification and analysis of the content of the Charter of Budva – a town located on the shores of the Adriatic Sea. It is emphasized that this Statute was created under the noticeable influence of Venetian law. That is why its content is quite similar to the charters of other Montenegrin towns that were part of the Stato da Mar – one of the possessions of the Venetian Republic, primarily located near the town of Kotor. Certain similarities of the Budva Charter can also be found by comparing it with the charters of cities subordinate to the medieval Genoese Republic, in particular those located on the territory of modern Ukraine.
 It is shown that the text of the Charter, as it has reached our time, was written during the reign of the Serbian king Stefan Uroš IV Dušan in the 14th century. Just like other charters of medieval cities on the southern coast of the Adriatic, the oldest version of the Charter of Budva was written in medieval Latin. This original has not survived to our time, but it was used during the translation into Italian in the 15th century, after Budva came under the rule of Venice (since 1442). Several transcripts have been made from this Italian translation. Six of them have survived to our time.
 It was noted that the Statute of Budva was a complex codification act, which was the result of long-term work and was a collection of norms of state, administrative, civil, criminal and procedural law. Its appearance was preceded by long work on the systematization and generalization of the norms of customary law, the norms of statutes issued by city authorities and state authorities, which included urban lands in one or another period, in particular, the norms of Venetian law, the norms of canon law, and taking into account judicial practice. It is noticeable that during the codification of the Charter of Budva, legal customs were widely used, as well as previous legal norms originating from the bodies of city administration (self-government). Source-based criticism of the Statute provides an opportunity to conclude that over time the law of Budva becomes noticeably more complicated and acquires more and more distinct specific features inherent in the local legal system.

Stefan Uroš II Milutin Nemanjić (1282–1321)

King Stefan Uroš II Milutin Nemanjić (1282—Donje Nerodimlje, October 29, 1321) was a Serbian medieval king, the seventh ruler of the Serbian Nemanide dynasty, the son of King Stefan Uroš I (r. 1243–1276) and Queen Helen Nemanjić (see), the brother of the King Stefan Dragutin (r. 1276–1282) and the father of King Stefan Dečanski (r. 1322–1331). Together with his great grandfather Stefan Nemanja, the founder of the Nemanide dynasty, and his grandson, Emperor Stefan Uroš IV Dušan, King Milutin is considered the most powerful ruler of the Nemanide dynasty. The long and successful military breach of King Milutin, down the Vardar River Valley and deep into the Byzantine territories, represents the beginning of Serbian expansion into southeastern Europe, making it the dominant political power in the Balkan region in the 14th century. During that period, Serbian economic power grew rapidly, mostly because of the development of trading and mining. King Milutin founded Novo Brdo, an internationally important silver mining site. He started minting his own money, producing imitations of Venetian coins (grosso), which gradually diminished in value. This led to the ban of these coins by the Republic of Venice and provided King Milutin a place in Dante’s Divina Commedia. King Milutin had a specific philoktesia fervor: He built or renovated over three dozen Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries not only in Serbia but also in Thessaloniki, Mt. Athos, Constantinople and The Holy Land. Over fifteen of his portraits can be found in the monumental painting ensembles of Serbian medieval monasteries as well as on two icons.

The «Fatherland» of the Serbian Kings Milutin and Dečanski or Some Additional Thoughts on the «Medieval Serbian Oecumene»

Mihailo St. Popović, in his part of the Study, follows up on the premise that an own local concept of ecumene was emerging during the reigns of Stefan Uroš II Milutin and Stefan Uroš III Dečanski. In his analysis, he relies on Serbian medieval charters and inscription. Following the analysis of the charter of Serbian King Stefan Uroš II Milutin for the Ulijare settlement, he recognizes the clear antithesis between the fatherland and the Serbian Land of the Serbian King on one hand, and Great Romania and the Greek Empire of the Byzantine Emperor, on the other. According to him, the narrative part of the manuscript clearly proves that it is not possible to notice the concept of universality in Milutin’s politics. Inspired by the research of Paul Nick Kardulias, he considers the Kingdom of Serbia as a self-contained space. With an emphasis on the examination of the charters and inscriptions, he states that during the reign of Milutin, such a space was probably created. From the World System Analysis perspective, charters and inscriptions from the reign of Stefan Uroš III Dečanski paint a slightly different picture. They probably illustrate the transition from selfcontained space to the great realm. In his part of the study, Vratislav Zevran focused mainly on the semantic level of the use of Slavic pendants of the Greek word οἰκουμένη and expressions otьčьstvije and otьčьstvo. The most common equivalent of the word οἰκουμένη was the loan translation vъseljenaja. By analyzing the use of the adjective derivative vьseljenьskyi in connection with the Byzantine common titles, he finds that the idea of universality prevailed only in the titles of general councils, and the only Byzantine Emperor thusly named was Andronikos II. Although he does not recognize the use of the adjective derivative vьseljenьskyi anywhere near the Serbian monarch, he believes that based on several examples, Serbian panegyric probably promoted the idea of a Serbian ruler who was also vьseljenьskyi. The key concept of a fatherland still lacks a comprehensive analysis of sources. Two forms otьčьstvije and otьčьstvo have settled in Church Slavonic. Over time, the ambivalence of both forms merged into a concept that implied the meaning of «family», «genus» and/or «generation». At the same time, they were joined by the attributes «royal» or «rulers», which indeed emerged on the basis of the word otьcь and worked with the meaning of the authority and power of the father. This concept then also appears in the hagiographic work of Danilo and his disciple.

George Pachymeres on King Milutin's brides and the role of Queen Helen

The importance of diplomatic marriages for position and politics of Serbian King Milutin found its significant place in the vast historical work of the learned Byzantine scholar George Pachymeres. Of particular significance is Pachymeres' information of the role and the influence of Milutin's mother, Queen Helen, which demonstrates her unique position within the Serbian ruling family, and his superb understanding of the relations within the Serbian royal family.

Life of Stefan Dečanski by Danilo's Student and by Grigorij Camblak: Comparative Analysis

The purpose of the article is to show how two authors, one Serbian and the other Bulgarian, saw the great Serbian ruler and how they composed his biography. Even though the authors were not contemporaries, their work exhibits similar pattern. However, they write in different styles, and their views and opinions differ. In this article, we will try, with a comparative method, to reliably present the life of Stefan Dečanski from the point of view of two great medieval writers. We set the goal to research biographies of Stefan Dečanski as accurately, neutrally, and objectively as possible, which were written by Danilo's student and by Grigorij Camblak. Our task is to identify all the parts in the biographies that are similar, and then those that are mentioned only in one of the listed works. Given the complexity of the topic, we used a set of methods of which the comparative is dominant. The article consists of two parts - the first gives an overview of ancient Serbian literature and explains medieval biography as a genre, while the second talks about Danilo's student and Grigorij Camblak, the similarities and differences in their work, and then compares what they wrote about. In the end, we concluded everything that was said. The beginnings of authorial literature and works, which are the subject of the article's research, brought with them a new approach to the process of writing, which reached a higher level of artistic formation of biographies. Even though the authors wrote within the canon and observed, to a greater or lesser extent, the stylistic features of everyday literature, they participated in the creation of reality and the spiritual world, as well as a selection of excerpts from the biography of the ruler. Old Serbian literature is rich in genres such as biographies, words of praise, prayers, liturgical songs, messages, etc. The genres of Serbian literature of the Middle Ages and the new century do not match: in the old Serbian literature, there are no novels, stories, historical stories, which we will display in this article. Our research does not stop at the fact that Danilo's student writes in one way about a great historical figure, while Grigorij Camblak writes differently about the same person. We set out to show, through a genre definition, the extent to which these two writers differ and what their view of Stefan Dečanski was. We will try to explain that both authors created their works for certain reasons, which are mostly different, but sometimes similar. Both wrote intending to create a cult of the Serbian king. This article will try to achieve this goal - to answer the question and show the result of a comparative analysis of the works of two authors with the same topic.

Carigrad u carskoj ideologiji Stefana Dušana

The centuries-old expansion of the Serbian state at the expense of Byzantium received its epilogue with the rule of Stefan Dušan. The Serbian king managed to use the opportunity provided by the Roman civil war of 1341-1347, manoeuvring between two warring houses, Kantakouzenos and Palaiologos. It was the weakening of both Byzantium and Bulgaria that gave him the opportunity to, by crowning himself emperor of the Serbs and Romans, plan a possible attack on Constantinople, which would absolutely justify the title he had held since 1345. Byzantine sources testify in their own way about Dušan's negotiations with the Ottomans, Venice and others and the gathering of the coalition against the winner of the civil war-John Kantakouzenos, whose revitalization of Constantinople-controlled territory stood in the way of the Serbian-Roman ruler's imperial ambitions. The testimonies of Nicephorus Gregoras, the emperor-writer himself, as well as the documentary material, led us to the conclusion that Stefan Dušan planned an extensive action directed towards the walls of Theodosius II. Taking into account the data on the order of Empress Anna of Savoy to renew the Thessaloniki fortification elements from 1355/56, it speaks of a possible general attack by the Serbian army. In addition to the above, the place of the emperor's death, which can still be debated in science, leaves room for various premises since two Ragusian historians wrote that Dušan died in Thrace-in Byzantine territory.

A hypothesis about the origin of Závis’s cross (or about a lost Serbian reliquary)

The documents testifying to the conflict between Serbian king Stefan Uros I (1242/1243-1276) and Hungarian king Bela IV (1235-1270) from the 1260s also bring news about the Serbian king?s reliquary that was seized at the time. Following the destiny and specificities of Zavis?s cross, we indicate the possibility of this being the same precious item.

СТЕФАН ДУШАН И МАНАСТИР СВЕТОГ ЈОВАНА ПРЕТЕЧЕ НА МЕНИКЕЈСКОЈ ГОРИ КОД СЕРА STEPHEN DUŠAN AND THE MONASTERY OF ST. JOHN THE FORERUNNER ON THE MOUNT MENOIKEION BY SERRAI

The monastery of St. John the Baptist on the Mount Menoikeion in the vicinity of Serrai was founded in around 1275. It enjoyed considerable favour of the Queen Simonis and since 1332 its patron was John Kantakouzenos. After the Serbian conquest of eastern Macedonia, the monastery prospered owing to the care of Stephen Dušan. The ties between the Serbian ruler and the monastic community are testified by the Greek documents of Dušan’s chancery. There are nine preserved prostagmata and chrysobulls of the Serbian King and Tsar from the period of 1345–1355. The analysis of their data, along with the use of other sources, will provide a basis for the attempted sketch of relations between Stephen Dušan and the influential Greek spiritual institution in southeast Macedonia.

Halfway Between Byzantium and Serbia: Marriage Provisions of the Second Žiča Charter .

Marking the eight hundred years anniversary of the adoption of the Žiča Charter issued by Stefan Prvovjenčani is more than a good reason to closely examine the provisions of this Charter. If we think about the historical and political context of that time, it becomes clear that the Žiča Charter provides direct information on the formative processes of the Serbian state and church. Žiča was not only the seat of the new Serbian archdiocese, but also had a central role in building the cult of the Nemanjić dynasty and especially of Stefan Prvovjenčani as its first king. The Žiča Charter, one of the oldest Serbian legal monuments, represents the determination of the first Serbian king to create a powerful Serbian state and strengthen the Serbian Orthodox Church, which would be the base of the political and legal program not only for Stefan Prvovjenčani, but also for his successors. This is reminiscent of the „symphony doctrine” that was copied from Byzantium, and in that copying, no branch of law, including marriage law, was spared. The most important part of this Charter are definitely the norms dedicated to marital law, which show that general political tendencies had a huge impact on private law too. Many legal transplants such as the prohibition of arbitrary divorce, the prohibition of kidnaping as a way of separating spouses or dowry institutions have caused radical changes in Serbian marital law; however, they were not immune to transformations under the influence of customary law and attitudes of the society of medieval Serbia. It once again proves the thesis of professor Alan Watson who claimed that legal transplants have their own, independent life in the law system that accepted them. When it comes to Serbian medieval law, that life started very early. The influence of Roman-Byzantine and canon law was already felt in the Nomokanon of Sveti Sava, and then in the Žiča Charter; in later regulations of Serbian medieval law this influence becomes quite obvious. The main topic of this paper will be the process of legal transplantation in marital law from the Byzantine Empire to Serbia and the author will also try to discover and explain certain regularities and deviations in that process. Тhe analysis of the marital provisions of the Žiča Charter is naturally imposed here as a starting point.

Serbian Royal Right to the Throne of Hungary at the Basis of the Formation of Medieval Romanian Orthodox States

This paper shows that the overall situation in the Pannonian-Balkan area led to the facts in the 14th-16th centuries on the background of which the Romanian medieval states were formed and consolidated. The origins of these facts derive from the interactions between the first Hungarian tribes who came to the Pannonian area and the situation that was encountered here, which can be staged as follows: the first stage is related to the arrival of the Hungarian tribes from the northern part of Europe and the conquest of the territory between the eastern Alps and the Dniester; the second stage is the period between the Christianization of the Hungarian King Stephen and the arrival of the Angevins. The second and the third period, post-Angevin, or rather Sigismundian-Lazarević, are epochs of colonization of different populations from the Germanic, North Pontic or Balkan space that are integrated into the noble structure of the Kingdom, consolidating its authority. The expansion of Serbian civilization came after the claim to the throne of Hungary of the Serbian King Stefan Dragutin when the Árpád dynasty came to end. Thus, the medieval Romanian Orthodox states, the Romanian Country-Wallachia and Moldavia are the rest of Andrew III’s, the last of Árpádian’s posterity of his Serbian posterity, and catholic Hungary, the rest of his Angevin Posterity.

1389 Kosova Savaşı ve Arnavutlar

Ottoman infiltration progressed relatively quickly in Southeast Europe in the late XIV century. The Battle of Kosovo, 1389, which took place near the city of Pristina, between the armies of the Balkan and Ottoman coalitions, was one of the most determined efforts of the Balkan population to stop the success of Ottoman expansion in the Balkan Peninsula. Serious preparations from both sides for this battle, the large number of opposing armies, the historical course of the battle, before and after it, have influenced the Battle of Kosovo to be the most crucial part of medieval historical studies for the territory of ancient Dardania - Kosovo. Historical sources, such as Ottoman, Byzantine, Italian, Ragusan, Albanian, Slavic, etc., provide evidence of the participation of some population of the Balkans, such as: Albanians, Croatian Serbs, Hungarians, Vlachs, Bulgarians, Czechs, etc. The Ottoman camp, led by Sultan Murat I, consisted of numerous forces from the kingdom and its vassals. From historical sources we have the assertion that the Balkan coalition was led by the Serbian king Lazar Hrebelanovic, as well as by the well-known Albanian leaders, such as Gjergj Balsha II, Teodor Muzaka, etc. In today's historiography, the First Battle of Kosovo has been extensively addressed and has yielded its well-known results on this issue: The First Battle of Kosovo has the character of a broad coalition of forces from both sides. From historical sources we have the assertion that the Balkan coalition was led by Lazar Hrebelanovic, prince of the Principality of South Moraves, Bosnian military troops under the leadership of Vlatko Vukovic, as well as well-known Albanian chieftains, such as George II Strazimir Balsha Principal of Shkodra, Prince of Shkodra Teodor Muzaka II prince of the Principality of Opar, as well as other peoples such as Vlachs, Hungarians, Croats, Poles, etc. Thus, this united war against the Ottomans was called the “Balkan Coalition against the Ottomans”. The Ottoman coalition consisted of numerous forces from the Empire and its vassal states. These forces were led by Sultan Murat I.

Transformation of the Nemanichi’s ideology in the monuments of the Milutin era (1282–1321) in the conquered Macedonian territories

This article is devoted to the problem of the influence of ideological attitudes on the iconographic programs of the medieval Macedonian monuments at the end of the 13th – the first quarter of the 14th century. This period is associated with the reign of the Serbian king Milutin (1282–1321), who conquered a number of Macedonian territories from Byzantium and married the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus (1282–1328). Close kinship with the imperial family and Milutin’s active policy towards Byzantium become the key factors for the reorientation of Serbian ideology from a national platform to an imperial one.This article is devoted to the problem of the influence of ideological attitudes on the iconographic programs of the medieval Macedonian monuments at the end of the 13th – the first quarter of the 14th century. This period is associated with the reign of the Serbian king Milutin (1282–1321), who conquered a number of Macedonian territories from Byzantium and married the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus (1282–1328). Close kinship with the imperial family and Milutin’s active policy towards Byzantium become the key factors for the reorientation of Serbian ideology from a national platform to an imperial one.The process of «byzantinization» affects all the areas of the life of the Serbian kingdom, including art. Establishing his presence in Macedonia, Milutin, with the help of the Greek masters, actively builds and restores churches, rebuilds the Greek buildings and invites the Greek artists, Michael and Eutychios, belonging to the progressive artistic movement to paint churches. Thus, the architectural and pictorial ensembles of this time arise within the framework of the Byzantine artistic tradition and correspond to the main currents of the Byzantine art. Fresco paintings are created in accordance with the stylistic principles of the advanced trends of the Paleologian Renaissance and are replete with fresh iconographic solutions, new semantic accents and compositions. Good preservation of the most of Milutin’s monuments ensured close attention of the researchers. However, with a thorough study of the Byzantine traditions in the Serbian cultural paradigm, the fact of embedding national specifics into the Byzantine imperial theme remained unnoticed, as evidenced by a number of the iconographic features of the monumental paintings considered in this article.Keywords: imperial theme, iconography, medieval fresco painting, national specifics, Milutin, ideology of Nemanichi, Macedonia, Serbian Kingdom, art, cultural studies, cultura of Medieval Ages.

On the relationship between titles and spaces: A case study on Macedonia under King and Emperor Stefan Dusan (1331–1355)

The article focuses on historical-geographical aspects of the Serbian medieval Kingdom and Empire and its relation to Byzantium in Macedonia during the 14th century. It is structured in four parts: The first is an introduction to the subject, in which the possible existence of a medieval Serbian Oecumene in addition to the Byzantine Oecumene is addressed. After that this hypothesis is discussed in detail in the second part by introducing a rich variety of Greek, Roman and Byzantine texts, which are outlining the Roman/Byzantine perception of space and definition of the borders of the Roman/Byzantine Empire. In the third part of the article the titles and related geographical entities in the intitulations as well as signatures of the Serbian King and Emperor Stefan Uros IV Dusan (1331-1355) in Serbian charters are analysed in order to understand and reconstruct the perception of space in the expanding Serbian realm during the first half of the 14th century. Historical regions, which are mentioned in the charters, are put in relation to the expansion in Byzantine Macedonia. In the fourth and last part the source-based evidence is connected to the toponymy of Byzantine Macedonia. Toponyms, which are containing ?Car? (i.e. ?Emperor?), have been identified and localised in order to discern a pattern of imperial power and presence in the region. Although there are strong indications that some of them might refer to the Serbian Emperor Stefan Dusan, it cannot be excluded that many could be based on the presence of Byzantine Emperors and Bulgarian rulers in the region. Therefore, the fourth part is to be understood as a fresh and novel approach towards toponomastic aspects in the region, which shall stimulate further research in the near future.