Sensorimotor Integration Processes Research Articles

Gaze Orienting in the Social World: An Exploration of the Role Played by Caregiving Vocal and Tactile Behaviors in Infants with Visual Impairment and in Sighted Controls.

Infant attention is a cognitive function that underlines sensory-motor integration processes at the interface between the baby and the surrounding physical and socio-relational environment, mainly with the caregivers. The investigation of the role of non-visual inputs (i.e., vocal and tactile) provided by the caregivers in shaping infants' attention in the context of visual impairment is relevant from both a theoretical and clinical point of view. This study investigated the social attention (i.e., gaze orientation) skills in a group of visually impaired (VI) and age-matched sighted controls (SCs) between 9 and 12 months of age. Moreover, the role of VI severity and maternal vocalizations and touch in shaping the social attention were investigated. Overall, 45 infants and their mothers participated in a video-recorded 4 min interaction procedure, including a play and a still-face episode. The infants' gaze orientation (i.e., mother-directed, object-directed, or unfocused) and the types of maternal vocalizations and touch (i.e., socio-cognitive, affective) were micro-analytically coded. Maternal vocalizations and touch were found to influence gaze orientation differently in VI infants compared SCs. Moreover, the group comparisons during the play episode showed that controls were predominantly oriented to the mothers, while VI infants were less socially oriented. Visual impairment severity did not emerge as linked with social attention. These findings contribute to our understanding of socio-cognitive developmental trajectories in VI infants and highlight the need for tailored interventions to promote optimal outcomes for VI populations.

Postural behaviour in people with multiple sclerosis: A complexity paradox

BackgroundBalance deficits are a major concern for people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). Measuring complexity of motor behaviour can offer an insight into MS-related changes in adaptability of the balance control system when dealing with increasingly complex tasks. QuestionDoes postural behaviour complexity differ between pwMS at early stages of the disease and healthy controls (HC)? Does postural behaviour complexity change across increasingly complex tasks? MethodsForty-eight pwMS and 24 HC performed four increasingly complex postural tasks with eyes open (EO), eyes closed (EC), on firm (FS) and compliant surface (CS). Lumbar and sternum sensors recorded 3D acceleration, from which complexity index (CI) was calculated using multiscale sample entropy (MSE) in the frontal and sagittal planes. ResultsWe found that only the complexity index in both planes during the eyes closed on compliant surface (EC-CS) task was significantly lower in pwMS compared to HC. We also found that complexity in pwMS was significantly lower during EC-CS compared to the other three tasks when using both lumbar and sternum sensors. SignificanceIncreasing the complexity of postural tasks reduces the complexity of postural behaviour in pwMS. This paradox may reflect reduced adaptability of the sensorimotor integration processes at early stages of MS. CI can provide a different perspective on balance deficits and could potentially be a more sensitive biomarker of MS progression and an early indicator of balance deficit.

Irregularity of instantaneous gamma frequency in the motor control network characterize visuomotor and proprioceptive information processing

Objective. The study aims to characterize movements with different sensory goals, by contrasting the neural activity involved in processing proprioceptive and visuo-motor information. To accomplish this, we have developed a new methodology that utilizes the irregularity of the instantaneous gamma frequency parameter for characterization. Approach. In this study, eight essential tremor patients undergoing an awake deep brain stimulation implantation surgery repetitively touched the clinician’s finger (forward visually-guided/FV movement) and then one’s own chin (backward proprioceptively-guided/BP movement). Neural electrocorticographic recordings from the motor (M1), somatosensory (S1), and posterior parietal cortex (PPC) were obtained and band-pass filtered in the gamma range (30–80 Hz). The irregularity of the inter-event intervals (IEI; inverse of instantaneous gamma frequency) were examined as: (1) auto-information of the IEI time series and (2) correlation between the amplitude and its proceeding IEI. We further explored the network connectivity after segmenting the FV and BP movements by periods of accelerating and decelerating forces, and applying the IEI parameter to transfer entropy methods. Main results. Conceptualizing that the irregularity in IEI reflects active new information processing, we found the highest irregularity in M1 during BP movement, highest in PPC during FV movement, and the lowest during rest at all sites. Also, connectivity was the strongest from S1 to M1 and from S1 to PPC during FV movement with accelerating force and weakest during rest. Significance. We introduce a novel methodology that utilize the instantaneous gamma frequency (i.e. IEI) parameter in characterizing goal-oriented movements with different sensory goals, and demonstrate its use to inform the directional connectivity within the motor cortical network. This method successfully characterizes different movement types, while providing interpretations to the sensory-motor integration processes.

Disentangling Cerebellar and Parietal Contributions to Gait and Body Schema: A Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study.

The overlap between motor and cognitive signs resulting from posterior parietal cortex (PPC) and cerebellar lesions can mask their relative contribution in the sensorimotor integration process. This study aimed to identify distinguishing motor and cognitive features to disentangle PPC and cerebellar involvement in two sensorimotor-related functions: gait and body schema representation. Thirty healthy volunteers were enrolled and randomly assigned to PPC or cerebellar stimulation. Sham stimulation and 1Hz-repetitive-Transcranial-Magnetic-Stimulation were delivered over P3 or cerebellum before a balance and a walking distance estimation task. Each trial was repeated with eyes open (EO) and closed (EC). Eight inertial measurement units recorded spatiotemporal and kinematic variables of gait. Instability increased in both groups after real stimulation: PPC inhibition resulted in increased instability in EC conditions, as evidenced by increased ellipse area and range of movement in medio-lateral and anterior-posterior (ROMap) directions. Cerebellar inhibition affected both EC (increased ROMap) and EO stability (greaterdisplacement of the center of mass). Inhibitory stimulation (EC vs. EO) affected also gait spatiotemporal variability, with a high variability of ankle and knee angles plus different patterns in the two groups (cerebellar vs parietal). Lastly, PPC group overestimates distances after real stimulation (EC condition) compared to the cerebellar group. Stability, gait variability, and distance estimation parameters may be useful clinical parameters to disentangle cerebellar and PPC sensorimotor integration deficits. Clinical differential diagnosis efficiency can benefit from this methodological approach.

ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHIC MARKERS OF CNS FUNCTIONAL STATE IN SPORT

All over the world, sports professionals are interested in attracting new technologies to work-out sessions to increase sportsmanship. Literature reveals that EEG markers of cognitive function dynamics, sensorimotor integration, and psychological stability are important in assessing the functional state of athletes. In addition to a high level of physical fitness, elite athletes develop cognitive skills specific to a particular sport. Besides they demonstrate high sensorimotor integration, improved attention, perception and information processing and other characteristics ensuring high performance. The review systematically analyzes publications devoted to the correlation between physical activity and CNS functional state. It is established that indicators of EEG alpha rhythm power and frequency are significant neurophysiological markers of cognitive function state. These indicators contribute much to studying high- and low-intensity physical activity.
 The authors analyzed such databases as Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, Pubmed, Cochrane, Embase, Google Scholar, and eLIBRARY.

Pain control due to botulinum toxin therapy in cervical dystonia relates to the sensorimotor integration process

Background: Botulinum toxin (BoNT) injections have been found to improve pain symptoms of isolated cervical dystonia (CD). In addition to muscle relaxation at the peripheral level, few studies suggest that BoNT has effects on the central brain circuitries. The effects of BoNT on central circuitries that may be pain-related have not been examined. We probed these central effects with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) techniques in a CD cohort presenting with significant pain.Methods: TMS-based measures of sensorimotor integration that are mediated through central processes, such as the short and long latency afferent inhibition (SAI and LAI) and measures for motor cortical excitability including short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) and intracortical facilitation (ICF) were recorded. These measures were recorded at specific interstimulus intervals (ISI) using paired-pulse paradigms before and after the peak effects of BoNT injections. Normative TMS data from age-matched healthy controls were collected for comparisons. Clinical pain symptoms were recorded with Toronto Western spasmodic rating scale (TWSTRS)-pain and a visual analog scale (VAS).Results: Eleven CD subjects (mean age ±SD, 53.1 ± 6.3 years) and 10 age-matched healthy controls were enrolled. SAI was found to be increased in CD patients at baseline, however at the time of peak BoNT effects, it revealed a significant change with normalization to healthy control data (SAI ISI 20 ms, p = 0.001; SAI ISI 30 ms, p = 0.03). The change in SAI correlated with improvements in pain levels assessed with TWSTRS-pain and VAS and the total dose of BoNT injected (corrected for multiple correlations). LAI, SICI, and ICF measures were similar to the healthy controls and remained unchanged with BoNT therapy.Conclusion: Pain control in CD from BoNT therapy relates to modulation of sensorimotor integration at the cortical level.

Observational learning of atypical biological kinematics in autism.

Observing and voluntarily imitating the biological kinematics displayed by a model underpins the acquisition of new motor skills via sensorimotor processes linking perception with action. Differences in voluntary imitation in autism could be related to sensorimotor processing activity during action-observation of biological motion, as well as how sensorimotor integration processing occurs across imitation attempts. Using an observational practice protocol, which minimized the active contribution of the peripheral sensorimotor system, we examined the contribution of sensorimotor processing during action-observation. The data showed that autistic participants imitated both the temporal duration and atypical kinematic profile of the observed movement with a similar level of accuracy as neurotypical participants. These findings suggest the lower-level perception-action processes responsible for encoding biological kinematics during the action-observation phase of imitation are operational in autism. As there was no task-specific engagement of the peripheral sensorimotor system during observational practice, imitation difficulties in autism are most likely underpinned by sensorimotor integration issues related to the processing of efferent and (re)afferent sensorimotor information during trial-to-trial motor execution.

A dissociable functional relevance of theta- and beta-band activities during complex sensorimotor integration.

Sensorimotor integration processes play a central role in daily life and require that different sources of sensory information become integrated: i.e. the information related to the object being under control of the agent (i.e. indicator) and the information about the goal of acting. Yet, how this is accomplished on a neurophysiological level is contentious. We focus on the role of theta- and beta-band activities and examine which neuroanatomical structures are involved. Healthy participants (n = 41) performed 3 consecutive pursuit-tracking EEG experiments in which the source of visual information available for tracking was varied (i.e. that of the indicator and the goal of acting). The initial specification of indicator dynamics is determined through beta-band activity in parietal cortices. When information about the goal was not accessible, but operating the indicator was required nevertheless, this incurred increased theta-band activity in the superior frontal cortex, signaling a higher need for control. Later, theta- and beta-band activities encode distinct information within the ventral processing stream: Theta-band activity is affected by the indicator information, while beta-band activity is affected by the information about the action goal. Complex sensorimotor integration is realized through a cascade of theta- and beta-band activities in a ventral-stream-parieto-frontal network.

Does Forward Head Posture Influence Somatosensory Evoked Potentials and Somatosensory Processing in Asymptomatic Young Adults?

The current investigation used somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) to assess differences in sensorimotor integration and somatosensory processing variables between asymptomatic individuals with and without forward head posture (FHP). We assessed different neural regions of the somatosensory pathway, including the amplitudes of the peripheral N9, spinal N13, brainstem P14, peak-to-peak amplitudes of parietal N20 and P27, and frontal N30 potentials. Central conduction time (N13-N20) was measured as the difference in peak latencies of N13 and N20. We measured these variables in 60 participants with FHP defined as a craniovertebral angle (CVA) < 50° and 60 control participants matched for age, gender, and body mass index (BMI) with normal FHP defined as CVA > 55°. Differences in variable measures were examined using the parametric t-test. Pearson's correlation was used to evaluate the relationship between the CVA and sensorimotor integration and SEP measurements. A generalized linear model (GLM) was used to compare the SEP measures between groups, with adjustment for educational level, marital status, BMI, and working hours per week. There were statistically significant differences between the FHP group and control group for all sensorimotor integration and SEP processing variables, including the amplitudes of spinal N13 (p < 0.005), brainstem P14 (p < 0.005), peak-to-peak amplitudes of parietal N20 and P27 (p < 0.005), frontal N30 potentials (p < 0.005), and the conduction time N13-N20 (p = 0.004). The CVA significantly correlated with all measured neurophysiological variables indicating that as FHP increased, sensorimotor integration and SEP processing became less efficient. FHP group correlations were: N9 (r = -0.44, p < 0.001); N13 (r = -0.67, p < 0.001); P14 (r = -0.58, p < 0.001); N20 (r = -0.49, p = 0.001); P27 (r = -0.58, p < 0.001); N30 potentials (r = -0.64, p < 0.001); and N13-N20 (r = -0.61, p < 0.001). GLM identified that increased working hours adversely affected the SEP measures (p < 0.005), while each 1° increase in the CVA was associated with improved SEP amplitudes and more efficient central conduction time (N13-N20; p < 0.005). Less efficient sensorimotor integration and SEP processing may be related to previous scientific reports of altered sensorimotor control and athletic skill measures in populations with FHP. Future investigations should seek to replicate our findings in different spine disorders and symptomatic populations in an effort to understand how improving forward head posture might benefit functional outcomes of patient care.

TRACK—a new algorithm and open-source tool for the analysis of pursuit-tracking sensorimotor integration processes

In daily life, sensorimotor integration processes are fundamental for many cognitive operations. The pursuit-tracking paradigm is an ecological and valid paradigm to examine sensorimotor integration processes in a more complex environment than many established tasks that assess simple motor responses. However, the analysis of pursuit-tracking performance is complicated, and parameters quantified to examine performance are sometimes ambiguous regarding their interpretation. We introduce an open-source algorithm (TRACK) to calculate a new tracking error metric, the spatial error, based on the identification of the intended target position for the respective cursor position. The identification is based on assigning cursor and target direction changes to each other as key events, based on the assumptions of similarity and proximity. By applying our algorithm to pursuit-tracking data, beyond replication of known effects such as learning or practice effects, we show a higher precision of the spatial tracking error, i.e., it fits our behavioral data better than the temporal tracking error and thus provides new insights and parameters for the investigation of pursuit-tracking behavior. Our work provides an important step towards fully utilizing the potential of pursuit-tracking tasks for research on sensorimotor integration processes.

Neurobiological Signatures of Auditory False Perception and Phantom Perception as a Consequence of Sensory Prediction Errors.

Simple SummaryThe principle of Bayesian inference provides a theoretical framework for stable perception in numerous tasks, including sensory–perceptual tasks, sensorimotor, and motor tasks. Efference copy (EC) signals enable organisms to reduce cognitive loading by decreasing the sensory processing of their own actions. In the auditory domain, the sensorimotor prediction error is responsible for false perceptions, such as auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia, while sensory prediction error also leads to auditory phantom perception such as tinnitus. Attenuation of the N1 component in event-related potentials has been suggested as evidence for the integrity of the EC mechanism. The current study investigated the EC mechanism in auditory false perception and phantom perception as a consequence of sensory prediction errors. N1 attenuation failures were present in tinnitus patients with significant hearing impairment and in those with schizophrenia, indicating that phantom perception after sensory deprivation might lead to impairment in the EC mechanism. However, the corresponding neural representation with spatiotemporal patterns presented differently between patients with schizophrenia and tinnitus. Although the present study had several constraints, the results provide a new perspective on neurobiological aspects of abnormal auditory perception resulting from deficits in predictive coding.In this study, we hypothesized that top-down sensory prediction error due to peripheral hearing loss might influence sensorimotor integration using the efference copy (EC) signals as functional connections between auditory and motor brain areas. Using neurophysiological methods, we demonstrated that the auditory responses to self-generated sound were not suppressed in a group of patients with tinnitus accompanied by significant hearing impairment and in a schizophrenia group. However, the response was attenuated in a group with tinnitus accompanied by mild hearing impairment, similar to a healthy control group. The bias of attentional networks to self-generated sound was also observed in the subjects with tinnitus with significant hearing impairment compared to those with mild hearing impairment and healthy subjects, but it did not reach the notable disintegration found in those in the schizophrenia group. Even though the present study had significant constraints in that we did not include hearing loss subjects without tinnitus, these results might suggest that auditory deafferentation (hearing loss) may influence sensorimotor integration process using EC signals. However, the impaired sensorimotor integration in subjects with tinnitus with significant hearing impairment may have resulted from aberrant auditory signals due to sensory loss, not fundamental deficits in the reafference system, as the auditory attention network to self-generated sound is relatively well preserved in these subjects.

Cognitive science theory-driven pharmacology elucidates the neurobiological basis of perception-motor integration

An efficient integration of sensory and motor processes is crucial to goal-directed behavior. Despite this high relevance, and although cognitive theories provide clear conceptual frameworks, the neurobiological basis of these processes remains insufficiently understood. In a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled pharmacological study, we examine the relevance of catecholamines for perception-motor integration processes. Using EEG data, we perform an in-depth analysis of the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms, focusing on sensorimotor integration processes during response inhibition. We show that the catecholaminergic system affects sensorimotor integration during response inhibition by modulating the stability of the representational content. Importantly, catecholamine levels do not affect the stability of all aspects of information processing during sensorimotor integration, but rather—as suggested by cognitive theory—of specific codes in the neurophysiological signal. Particularly fronto-parietal cortical regions are associated with the identified mechanisms. The study shows how cognitive science theory-driven pharmacology can shed light on the neurobiological basis of perception-motor integration and how catecholamines affect specific information codes relevant to cognitive control.

Sensorimotor inhibition during emotional processing

Visual processing of emotional stimuli has been shown to engage complex cortical and subcortical networks, but it is still unclear how it affects sensorimotor integration processes. To fill this gap, here, we used a TMS protocol named short-latency afferent inhibition (SAI), capturing sensorimotor interactions, while healthy participants were observing emotional body language (EBL) and International Affective Picture System (IAPS) stimuli. Participants were presented with emotional (fear- and happiness-related) or non-emotional (neutral) EBL and IAPS stimuli while SAI was tested at 120 ms and 300 ms after pictures presentation. At the earlier time point (120 ms), we found that fear-related EBL and IAPS stimuli selectively enhanced SAI as indexed by the greater inhibitory effect of somatosensory afferents on motor excitability. Larger early SAI enhancement was associated with lower scores at the Behavioural Inhibition Scale (BIS). At the later time point (300 ms), we found a generalized SAI decrease for all kind of stimuli (fear, happiness or neutral). Because the SAI index reflects integrative activity of cholinergic sensorimotor circuits, our findings suggest greater sensitivity of such circuits during early (120 ms) processing of threat-related information. Moreover, the correlation with BIS score may suggest increased attention and sensory vigilance in participants with greater anxiety-related dispositions. In conclusion, the results of this study show that sensorimotor inhibition is rapidly enhanced while processing threatening stimuli and that SAI protocol might be a valuable option in evaluating emotional-motor interactions in physiological and pathological conditions.

Somesthetic, Visual, and Auditory Feedback and Their Interactions Applied to Upper Limb Neurorehabilitation Technology: A Narrative Review to Facilitate Contextualization of Knowledge.

Reduced hand dexterity is a common component of sensorimotor impairments for individuals after stroke. To improve hand function, innovative rehabilitation interventions are constantly developed and tested. In this context, technology-based interventions for hand rehabilitation have been emerging rapidly. This paper offers an overview of basic knowledge on post lesion plasticity and sensorimotor integration processes in the context of augmented feedback and new rehabilitation technologies, in particular virtual reality and soft robotic gloves. We also discuss some factors to consider related to the incorporation of augmented feedback in the development of technology-based interventions in rehabilitation. This includes factors related to feedback delivery parameter design, task complexity and heterogeneity of sensory deficits in individuals affected by a stroke. In spite of the current limitations in our understanding of the mechanisms involved when using new rehabilitation technologies, the multimodal augmented feedback approach appears promising and may provide meaningful ways to optimize recovery after stroke. Moving forward, we argue that comparative studies allowing stratification of the augmented feedback delivery parameters based upon different biomarkers, lesion characteristics or impairments should be advocated (e.g., injured hemisphere, lesion location, lesion volume, sensorimotor impairments). Ultimately, we envision that treatment design should combine augmented feedback of multiple modalities, carefully adapted to the specific condition of the individuals affected by a stroke and that evolves along with recovery. This would better align with the new trend in stroke rehabilitation which challenges the popular idea of the existence of an ultimate good-for-all intervention.

Closed-loop control of a prosthetic finger via evoked proprioceptive information

Objective. Proprioceptive information plays an important role for recognizing and coordinating our limb’s static and dynamic states relative to our body or the environment. In this study, we determined how artificially evoked proprioceptive feedback affected the continuous control of a prosthetic finger. Approach. We elicited proprioceptive information regarding the joint static position and dynamic movement of a prosthetic finger via a vibrotactor array placed around the subject’s upper arm. Myoelectric signals of the finger flexor and extensor muscles were used to control the prosthesis, with or without the evoked proprioceptive feedback. Two control modes were evaluated: the myoelectric signal amplitudes were continuously mapped to either the position or the velocity of the prosthetic joint. Main results. Our results showed that the evoked proprioceptive information improved the control accuracy of the joint angle, with comparable performance in the position- and velocity-control conditions. However, greater angle variability was prominent during position-control than velocity-control. Without the proprioceptive feedback, the position-control tended to show a smaller angle error than the velocity-control condition. Significance. Our findings suggest that closed-loop control of a prosthetic device can potentially be achieved using non-invasive evoked proprioceptive feedback delivered to intact participants. Moreover, the evoked sensory information was integrated during myoelectric control effectively for both control strategies. The outcomes can facilitate our understanding of the sensorimotor integration process during human-machine interactions, which can potentially promote fine control of prosthetic hands.

Neuronal Oscillatory Signatures of Joint Attention and Intersubjectivity in Arrhythmic Coaction.

Hyper-brain studies analyze the brain activity of two or more individuals during some form of interaction. Several studies found signs of inter-subject brain activity coordination, such as power and phase synchronization or information flow. This hyper-brain coordination is frequently studied in paradigms which induce rhythms or even synchronization, e.g., by mirroring movements, turn-based activity in card or economic games, or joint music making. It is therefore interesting to figure out in how far coordinated brain activity may be induced by a rhythmicity in the task and/or the sensory feedback that the partners receive. We therefore studied the EEG brain activity of dyads in a task that required the smooth pursuit of a target and did not involve any extrinsic rhythms. Partners controlled orthogonal axes of the two-dimensional motion of an object that had to be kept on the target. Using several methods for analyzing hyper-brain coupling, we could not detect signs of coordinated brain activity. However, we found several brain regions in which the frequency-specific activity significantly correlated with the objective task performance, the subjective experience thereof, and of the collaboration. Activity in these regions has been linked to motor control, sensorimotor integration, executive control and emotional processing. Our results suggest that neural correlates of intersubjectivity encompass large parts of brain areas that are considered to be involved in sensorimotor control without necessarily coordinating their activity across agents.

Cortical plasticity causes useless hand syndrome in multiple sclerosis: a neurophysiological study in a rare case

Background Useless Hand Syndrome (UHS) is a rare clinical manifestation of an upper cervical cord lesion, which is most commonly associated with multiple sclerosis (MS). The pathophysiological mechanism underlying UHS remains unclear. Case We report a 25-year-old woman, who described numbness in her left upper extremity. Cervical magnetic resonance imaging revealed a posterior upper cervical cord lesion. There was no cortical lesion that could explain the clinical findings. We measured (1) short-latency afferent inhibition (SAI) by obtaining motor evoked potentials as an indicator of sensorimotor integration and (2) somatosensorial temporal discrimination threshold (STDT) to display central somatosensory pathway function. In the right cerebral hemisphere, we found an excessive increase in STDT and no inhibition in the SAI paradigm. Conclusions These findings indicate that impairment of sensorimotor integration and central processing of sensory stimuli cause useless hand syndrome.

Static and dynamic proprioceptive recognition through vibrotactile stimulation

Objective. Proprioceptive information provides individuals with a sense of our limb’s static position and dynamic movement. Impaired or a lack of such feedback can diminish our ability to perform dexterous motions with our biological limbs or assistive devices. Here we seek to determine whether both static and dynamic components of proprioception can be recognized using variation of the spatial and temporal components of vibrotactile feedback. Approach. An array of five vibrotactors was placed on the forearm of each subject. Each tactor was encoded to represent one of the five forearm postures. Vibratory stimulus was elicited to convey the static position and movement of the forearm. Four experimental blocks were performed to test each subject’s recognition of a forearm’s simulated static position, rotational amplitude, rotational amplitude and direction, and rotational speed. Main results. Our results showed that the subjects were able to perform proprioceptive recognition based on the delivered vibrotactile information. Specifically, rotational amplitude recognition resulted in the highest level of accuracy (99.0%), while the recognition accuracy of the static position and the rotational amplitude-direction was the lowest (91.7% and 90.8%, respectively). Nevertheless, all proprioceptive properties were perceived with >90% accuracy, indicating that the implemented vibrotactile encoding scheme could effectively provide proprioceptive information to the users. Significance. The outcomes suggest that information pertaining to static and dynamic aspects of proprioception can be accurately delivered using an array of vibrotactors. This feedback approach could be used to potentially evaluate the sensorimotor integration processes during human–machine interactions, and to improve sensory feedback in clinical populations with somatosensory impairments.

Somatosensory perception\u2013action binding in Tourette syndrome

It is a common phenomenon that somatosensory sensations can trigger actions to alleviate experienced tension. Such “urges” are particularly relevant in patients with Gilles de la Tourette (GTS) syndrome since they often precede tics, the cardinal feature of this common neurodevelopmental disorder. Altered sensorimotor integration processes in GTS as well as evidence for increased binding of stimulus- and response-related features (“hyper-binding”) in the visual domain suggest enhanced perception–action binding also in the somatosensory modality. In the current study, the Theory of Event Coding (TEC) was used as an overarching cognitive framework to examine somatosensory-motor binding. For this purpose, a somatosensory-motor version of a task measuring stimulus–response binding (S-R task) was tested using electro-tactile stimuli. Contrary to the main hypothesis, there were no group differences in binding effects between GTS patients and healthy controls in the somatosensory-motor paradigm. Behavioral data did not indicate differences in binding between examined groups. These data can be interpreted such that a compensatory “downregulation” of increased somatosensory stimulus saliency, e.g., due to the occurrence of somatosensory urges and hypersensitivity to external stimuli, results in reduced binding with associated motor output, which brings binding to a “normal” level. Therefore, “hyper-binding” in GTS seems to be modality-specific.

Assessing kinesthetic proprioceptive function of the upper limb: a novel dynamic movement reproduction task using a robotic arm.

BackgroundProprioception refers to the perception of motion and position of the body or body segments in space. A wide range of proprioceptive tests exists, although tests dynamically evaluating sensorimotor integration during upper limb movement are scarce. We introduce a novel task to evaluate kinesthetic proprioceptive function during complex upper limb movements using a robotic device. We aimed to evaluate the test–retest reliability of this newly developed Dynamic Movement Reproduction (DMR) task. Furthermore, we assessed reliability of the commonly used Joint Reposition (JR) task of the elbow, evaluated the association between both tasks, and explored the influence of visual information (viewing arm movement or not) on performance during both tasks.MethodsDuring the DMR task, participants actively reproduced movement patterns while holding a handle attached to the robotic arm, with the device encoding actual position throughout movement. In the JR task, participants actively reproduced forearm positions; with the final arm position evaluated using an angle measurement tool. The difference between target movement pattern/position and reproduced movement pattern/position served as measures of accuracy. In study 1 (N = 23), pain-free participants performed both tasks at two test sessions, 24-h apart, both with and without visual information available (i.e., vision occluded using a blindfold). In study 2 (N = 64), an independent sample of pain-free participants performed the same tasks in a single session to replicate findings regarding the association between both tasks and the influence of visual information.ResultsThe DMR task accuracy showed good-to-excellent test–retest reliability, while JR task reliability was poor: measurements did not remain sufficiently stable over testing days. The DMR and JR tasks were only weakly associated. Adding visual information (i.e., watching arm movement) had different performance effects on the tasks: it increased JR accuracy but decreased DMR accuracy, though only when the DMR task started with visual information available (i.e., an order effect).DiscussionThe DMR task’s highly standardized protocol (i.e., largely automated), precise measurement and involvement of the entire upper limb kinetic chain (i.e., shoulder, elbow and wrist joints) make it a promising tool. Moreover, the poor association between the JR and DMR tasks indicates that they likely capture unique aspects of proprioceptive function. While the former mainly captures position sense, the latter appears to capture sensorimotor integration processes underlying kinesthesia, largely independent of position sense. Finally, our results show that the integration of visual and proprioceptive information is not straightforward: additional visual information of arm movement does not necessarily make active movement reproduction more accurate, on the contrary, when movement is complex, vision appears to make it worse.