Semi-nomadic Pastoralists Research Articles

Physical Activity and Pregnancy Norms Among Daasanach Semi-Nomadic Pastoralist Women in Northern Kenya.

In subsistence populations, high physical activity is typically maintained throughout pregnancy. Market integration shifts activity patterns to resemble industrialized populations, with more time allocated to sedentary behavior. Daasanach semi-nomadic pastoralists living in northern Kenya face lifestyle heterogeneity due to the emergence of a market center. We investigate how Daasanach women manage the energetic demands of pregnancy with subsistence labor tasks and how market integration relates to variation in energetic demands, physical activity, and coping strategies. We conducted nine focus group discussions with 72 pregnant women. We also deployed wrist-worn fitness trackers with 21 pregnant women in two community types: central or peripheral to the market center to capture variation in market integration. Data from focus group discussions were analyzed using thematic analysis. We used multiple linear regression to examine the relationship between gestational age and physical activity. We identified themes of increased fatigue, diet restrictions, and assistance with labor tasks during pregnancy. Gestational age negatively predicted mean daily steps, with a decrease of 1160 ± 437 steps per day with each consecutive pregnancy month. Stratified by community type, gestational age only negatively predicted mean daily steps for peripheral communities, with a decrease of 1443 ± 629 steps per day with each consecutive pregnancy month. Results suggest that physical activity differs with market integration early, but not late, in pregnancy. Daasanach women cope with the energetic demands of pregnancy by reducing physical activity late in pregnancy and receiving assistance with labor tasks from family and neighbors.

Mobility ideation due to water problems during historic 2022 drought associated with livestock wealth, water and food insecurity, and fingernail cortisol concentration in northern Kenya

Climate change is triggering environmental mobility through chronic water problems and punctuated events. Thinking about moving locations, or “mobility ideation”, is the precursor to migration intentionality and actual migration. Drawing on the embodiment construct, this study examines how the worst drought in recent history in the Horn of Africa affected water-related mobility ideation and, in turn, fingernail cortisol concentration (FCC), a chronic stress biomarker, among Daasanach semi-nomadic pastoralists in northern Kenya. To address these questions, we primarily draw on survey, anthropometric, water quality, and biomarker data among 175 adults living in seven communities in 2022. We used mixed-effects ordered logistic regression to test how livestock wealth, water insecurity, food insecurity, and anxiety/depression symptom scores were associated with household mobility ideation. We then used generalized linear models to test the association between mobility ideation on FCC. Thinking about moving at least once due to water problems increased from pre-drought in 2019 (55%) to during the drought in 2022 (92%), while actual mobility declined. Livestock wealth, while associated with actual mobility in the prior year, was protective against increased mobility ideation, while water insecurity, food insecurity, and anxiety/depression symptoms were associated with greater odds of thinking of leaving in 2022. Compared to adults who did not consider moving, those who considered moving rarely, sometimes, and often had FCC levels 18.1% higher (95% CI, 1.01–1.38; p = 0.039), 19.4% higher (1.01–1.41; p = 0.040), and 32.3% higher (1.01–1.73; p = 0.039), respectively, with results consistent in sensitivity analyses. Extreme climatic events in water scarce regions may increase mobility ideation through worsened experiential indicators of well-being and resource insecurity. Mobility ideation may capture measures of adversity suffered by pastoralists and signify climate distress. This research broadens understanding of how droughts get under the skin by leading to resource insecurity and triggering thoughts of moving, which increases chronic stress.

Sex and age distribution of the Hyperostosis frontalis interna (based on skulls analysis of tra-ditional societies in Eurasia)

Hyperostosis frontalis interna is an overgrowth on the inner surface of the frontal bone [Hershkovitz et al., 1999]. HFI is accompanied by hormonal and metabolic disorders usually [Hershkovitz et al., 1999]. The rate of HFI in historical groups is low (1–4 %) compared to the modern population, where the incidence of HFI can reach 70 % [Kolyasnikova, Buzhilova, 2023; Barber et al., 1997]. In the modern population, HFI is more common for women, predominantly elderly, which, at first glance, is explained by the general increase in women's life expectancy and the accumulation of various chronic pathologies in old age, including those related to metabolism. To examine the distribution of the HFI trait by sex and age, craniological material from representatives of traditional societies of farmers, hunters, nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists living in different climatic zones was studied. Craniological series were divided into three main groups: inhabitants of the Arctic and subarctic, temperate and continental climatic zones. A total of 1912 skulls were studied from the funds of the Research Institute and the Museum of Anthropology of Moscow State University [Alexe-eva et al., 1986]. As a result, using the example of 4 traditional groups from three climatic zones, it was shown that the sign of frontal internal hyperostosis is equally pronounced in both women and men, regardless of ethnic origin, place of residence and type of activity. The age-related increase in the frequency of hyperostosis, taking into account gender, does not give a clear trend in all groups obtained from the analysis of combined samples, which can be explained by the relatively small number of HFI observations in individual subgroups. The pattern of distribution of the trait of frontal internal hyperostosis in the modern population, where the trait is more common in older women, does not correlate with the distribution of HFI in the population adapted to environmental conditions. The results obtained suggest that in tradi-tional societies that have been selected for factors of conditions and lifestyle, regardless of their origin, the distribution of the trait of frontal internal hyperostosis will demonstrate a natural profile that is most adequate to their lifestyle and diet.

Total daily energy expenditure and elevated water turnover in a small-scale semi-nomadic pastoralist society from Northern Kenya

Background Pastoralists live in challenging environments, which may be accompanied by unique activity, energy, and water requirements. Aim Few studies have examined whether the demands of pastoralism contribute to differences in total energy expenditure (TEE) and water turnover (WT) compared to other lifestyles. Subjects and methods Accelerometer-derived physical activity, doubly labelled water-derived TEE and WT, and anthropometric data were collected for 34 semi-nomadic Daasanach adults from three northern Kenyan communities with different levels of pastoralist activity. Daasanach TEEs and WTs were compared to those of other small-scale and industrialised populations. Results When modelled as a function of fat-free-mass, fat-mass, age, and sex, TEE did not differ between Daasanach communities. Daasanach TEE (1564–4172 kcal/day) was not significantly correlated with activity and 91% of TEEs were within the range expected for individuals from comparison populations. Mean WT did not differ between Daasanach communities; Daasanach absolute (7.54 litres/day men; 7.46 litres/day women), mass-adjusted, and TEE-adjusted WT was higher than most populations worldwide. Conclusions The similar mass-adjusted TEE of Daasanach and industrialised populations supports the hypothesis that habitual TEE is constrained, with physically demanding lifestyles necessitating trade-offs in energy allocation. Elevated WT in the absence of elevated TEE likely reflects a demanding active lifestyle in a hot, arid climate.

Evaluation of a multi-component early warning system for pastoralist populations in Doolo zone, Ethiopia: mixed-methods study

BackgroundThis study evaluated an early warning, alert and response system for a crisis-affected population in Doolo zone, Somali Region, Ethiopia, in 2019–2021, with a history of epidemics of outbreak-prone diseases. To adequately cover an area populated by a semi-nomadic pastoralist, or livestock herding, population with sparse access to healthcare facilities, the surveillance system included four components: health facility indicator-based surveillance, community indicator- and event-based surveillance, and alerts from other actors in the area. This evaluation described the usefulness, acceptability, completeness, timeliness, positive predictive value, and representativeness of these components.MethodsWe carried out a mixed-methods study retrospectively analysing data from the surveillance system February 2019–January 2021 along with key informant interviews with system implementers, and focus group discussions with local communities. Transcripts were analyzed using a mixed deductive and inductive approach. Surveillance quality indicators assessed included completeness, timeliness, and positive predictive value, among others.Results1010 signals were analysed; these resulted in 168 verified events, 58 alerts, and 29 responses. Most of the alerts (46/58) and responses (22/29) were initiated through the community event-based branch of the surveillance system. In comparison, one alert and one response was initiated via the community indicator-based branch. Positive predictive value of signals received was about 6%. About 80% of signals were verified within 24 h of reports, and 40% were risk assessed within 48 h. System responses included new mobile clinic sites, measles vaccination catch-ups, and water and sanitation-related interventions. Focus group discussions emphasized that responses generated were an expected return by participant communities for their role in data collection and reporting. Participant communities found the system acceptable when it led to the responses they expected. Some event types, such as those around animal health, led to the community’s response expectations not being met.ConclusionsEvent-based surveillance can produce useful data for localized public health action for pastoralist populations. Improvements could include greater community involvement in the system design and potentially incorporating One Health approaches.

Livestock for Livelihoods: Role of Goats in Improving the Livelihood and Well-being of Women Pastoralists in Ethiopia and Uganda

Abstract Farm Africa worked with semi-nomadic pastoralist women living in the South Omo region of Ethiopia and Karamoja subregion in Uganda, thereby supporting them to set up sustainable, small-scale goat-rearing enterprises that contributed to increased household income, improved dietary diversity and nutritional status of their families. The project also supported community-based animal health service delivery as part of the integrated approach. Livestock is the main source of livelihood for the pastoralist communities in East Africa, though disease, drought and degraded grasslands make it unproductive. Rural women in pastoralist communities in Ethiopia and Uganda lack nutritional knowledge, financial skills, credit access and a voice in household decision making, which result in them having a low economic status and which contribute to malnutrition. Declining animal health services, due in part to reduced government capacity, exacerbate the challenge of increasing goat productivity. Farm Africa through the Livestock for Livelihoods project (March 2019–July 2021) supported 10,000 women to improve their socio-economic status and improve household nutrition. It supported women beneficiaries to be more economically empowered through access to finance provided by Village Savings and Loans Associations (VSLAs) and facilitated them to be involved in profitable enterprises in the goat value chain (goat breeding, leather tanning and milk value addition). These activities stimulated livelihood diversification and trade, contributing to reduced levels of poverty and malnutrition. Some of the remarkable results include increased revenue that women acquired from the sale of live goats, meat, hides, skins and milk; improved dietary diversity in children under 5 years and women; and increased Women’s Economic Empowerment (WEE) scores. This project created and strengthened a network of Community-Based Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) linked to agro-input dealers to enhance pastoralists’ access to quality animal health services. A total of 155 CAHWs (127 men and 28 women) in the two countries were empowered to provide animal health services to the pastoralists across the project area. The logo of Farm Africa. Information © The Author 2023

The effects of lifestyle change on indicators of cardiometabolic health in semi-nomadic pastoralists.

Non-communicable disease risk and the epidemic of cardiometabolic diseases continue to grow across the expanding industrialized world. Probing the relationships between evolved human physiology and modern socioecological conditions is central to understanding this health crisis. Therefore, we investigated the relationships between increased market access, shifting subsistence patterns and cardiometabolic health indicators within Daasanach semi-nomadic pastoralists who vary in their engagement in traditional lifestyle and emerging market behaviors. We conducted cross-sectional socioecological, demographic and lifestyle stressor surveys along with health, biomarker and nutrition examinations among 225 (51.6% female) Daasanach adults in 2019-2020. We used linear mixed-effects models to test how differing levels of engagement in market integration and traditional subsistence activities related to blood pressure (BP), body composition and blood chemistry. We found that systolic and diastolic BP, as well as the probability of having high BP (hypertension), were negatively associated with distance to market, a proxy for market integration. Additionally, body composition varied significantly by socioeconomic status (SES), with significant positive associations between BMI and body fat and higher SES among adults. While evidence for evolutionary mismatch and health variation have been found across a number of populations affected by an urban/rural divide, these results demonstrate the effects of market integration and sedentarization on cardiometabolic health associated with the early stages of lifestyle changes. Our findings provide evidence for the changes in health when small-scale populations begin the processes of sedentarization and market integration that result from myriad market pressures.

Early childhood growth in Daasanach pastoralists of Northern Kenya: Distinct patterns of faltering in linear growth and weight gain.

Investigations of early childhood growth among small-scale populations are essential for understanding human life history variation and enhancing the ability to serve such communities through global public health initiatives. This study characterizes early childhood growth trajectories and identifies differences in growth patterns relative to international references among Daasanach semi-nomadic pastoralist children living in a hot, arid region of northern Kenya. A large sample of height and weight measures were collected from children (N=1756; total observations=4508; age=0-5 years) between 2018 and 2020. Daasanach growth was compared to international reference standards and Daasanach-specific centile growth curves and pseudo-velocity models were generated using generalized additive models for location scale and size. Compared to World Health Organization (WHO) reference, relatively few Daasanach children were stunted (14.3%), while a large proportion were underweight (38.5%) and wasted (53.6%). Additionally, Daasanach children had a distinctive pattern of growth, marked by an increase in linear growth velocity after 24 months of age and relatively high linear growth velocity throughout the rest of early childhood. These results identify a unique pattern of early childhood growth faltering among children in a small-scale population and may reflect a thermoregulatory adaptation to their hot, arid environment. As linear growth and weight gain remain important indicators of health, the results of this study provide insight into growth velocity variations. This study has important implications for global public health efforts to identify and address sources of early growth faltering and undernutrition in small-scale populations.

Integrated Participatory Approach Reveals Perceived Local Availability of Wild Edible Plants in Northwestern Kenya

Availability is a crucial aspect of wild edible plants (WEPs) consumption by indigenous communities. Understanding the local perception of this availability helps to determine, which contribution WEPs can make to rural communities. We used an integrated participatory approach to investigate important parameters and themes that influenced the perception of availability of woody WEPs. We demonstrate the approach in three communities in Turkana County, Kenya. By availability, we referred to the ease of accessing, harvesting, transporting, and processing WEPs for consumption. We conducted three focus group discussions (FGDs). We asked FGD participants to list, score, and discuss availability. We used logistic regression and mixed-content analysis to identify important parameters and themes, respectively. The most important WEPs were the toothbrush tree (Salvadora persica L.), Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.), and mbamba ngoma (Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) Blatt.). Distance, seasonality, price, and adequacy of harvested WEPs for household consumption were important parameters. Culture and tradition, distribution of WEPs, seasonality, and climate change emerged as important themes. We showed the importance of using an integrated participatory approach when assessing the perception of WEPs’ availability by local communities and could be used in comparable arid and semi-arid areas with semi-nomadic pastoralists across Africa.

Gender norms and family planning amongst pastoralists in Kenya: a qualitative study in Wajir and Mandera

There is growing recognition among global health practitioners of the importance of rights-based family planning (FP) programming that addresses inequities. Despite Kenya achieving its national FP target, inequities in access and use of modern FP remain, especially amongst marginalised nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralist communities. Few studies explore norms affecting FP practices amongst nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists and how these can influence social and behaviour change (SBC) interventions. We carried out 48 in-depth interviews and 16 focus group discussions with women and men from pastoralist communities in North Eastern Kenya in November 2018. Data were analysed thematically. Results from focus groups and interviews confirmed themes, while allowing differences between the qualitative approaches to emerge. We found that large family size was a descriptive and injunctive norm in both nomadic and semi-nomadic communities. The desire for around 10 children was sustained by religious beliefs and pastoralist ways of living. Despite a desire for large families, maintaining child spacing was encouraged and practised through breastfeeding and sexual abstinence. Most participants viewed modern FP negatively and as something used by “others”. However, it was acceptable in order to prevent severe negative health outcomes. Future FP research to inform interventions should continue to consider community fertility preferences and the rationale for these, including norms, religion and power dynamics. Targeted qualitative social norms research could inform multi-component SBC interventions in this context.

High daily energy expenditure of Tuvan nomadic pastoralists living in an extreme cold environment

Research investigating thermoregulatory energy costs in free-living humans is limited. We determined the total energy expenditure (TEE) of Tuvan pastoralists living in an extreme cold environment and explored the contribution of physical activity and cold-induced thermogenesis. Twelve semi-nomadic pastoralists (47 ± 8 years, 64 ± 8 kg) living under traditional circumstances, in Tuva, south-central Siberia, Russia, were observed during two consecutive 6-day periods in winter. TEE was measured via the doubly labelled water technique. Skin and ambient temperatures, and physical activity were continuously monitored. The outdoor temperature during the observation period was − 27.4 ± 5.4 °C. During the daytime, the participants were exposed to ambient temperatures below 0 °C for 297 ± 131 min/day. The Tuvan pastoralists were more physically active compared to western populations (609 ± 90 min/day of light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity). In addition, TEE was 13.49 ± 1.33 MJ/day (3224 ± 318 kcal/day), which was significantly larger by 17% and 31% than predicted by body mass, and fat-free mass, respectively. Our research suggests the daily cold exposure combined with high levels of physical activity contributed to the elevated TEE. Future research should reconsider the assumption that energy costs due to thermoregulation are negligible in free-living humans.

Surveyed from Afar: Household water security, emotional well-being, and the reliability of water supply in the Ethiopian lowlands.

Almost half of the world's population is expected to experience water stress in their daily lives by 2050. The impacts of water scarcity on physical and psychosocial health are especially felt in arid regions of Ethiopia where semi-nomadic pastoralist populations are heavily reliant on groundwater for domestic and livestock needs. However, functional water supply infrastructure and reliable service delivery remain a challenge. A cross-sectional water security household survey of 469 heads of households and borehole runtime sensor data in Afar Region, Ethiopia, has three main findings. First, higher levels of household water insecurity experiences (HWISE) and water-related emotional distress (WRED) are positively correlated (0.57, p<0.01) and are significantly associated with "limited" water service levels, the non-use of boreholes, and more vulnerable household demographics (female-headed households and lower household incomes). Lower HWISE scores are associated with increased borehole pump usage and reliability, with a cut-off point of 6h of pump usage per day measured with electronic sensors. Adding additional water points to the dry lowlands of Afar have led to overcrowding and rangeland degradation in the past, highlighting a need to balance increased production for human consumption with livestock use. When it comes to climate resilience and adaptation, ensuring the reliability of what has already been constructed is a top priority for the regional government. Our findings suggest that increasing the reliability and daily usage of existing water supply systems over the short-sighted expansion of sources is worth the investment in services it will take to reach even the most far-flung communities.

Millet consumption in south Xinjiang during the 1st millennium BCE: Isotopic evidence from bone bioapatite at the Ji'erzankale site

Although the Pamir Plateau in southern Xinjiang was likely a key route in the extensive transcontinental network of cultural exchange across Eurasia, little isotopic research has been conducted in this region. Here we present isotopic results of bioapatite (δ13C, δ18O) from humans and animals (n = 38) from the Ji'erzankale site (c. 400–600 years cal BCE) located in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. These results are combined with previously published collagen isotopic data from the same individuals to explore the possibility and extent of millet consumption in this area. The δ13C values of the sheep (−10.8 ± 0.7‰, n = 13) and humans (−13.7 ± 0.5‰, n = 24) were found to be higher than those of the wild hare (−14.9‰, n = 1). The humans consumed a predominately C3 diet, but the bioapatite-collagen δ13C spacing indicates that there was a minor input of C4 plants in the diet, likely millet. The inhabitants of the Ji'erzankale site were semi-nomadic pastoralists that likely supplemented their diet with the small scale consumption of millet. It is likely that the Pamir Plateau was a key area in the spread of millet agriculture between the East and the West during the 1st millennium BCE.

Factors Affecting the Perception and Practice of Iranian Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Pastoralists in Regard to Biosecurity Practices in Sheep and Goat Farms: A Cross-Sectional and Prospective Study

Preventing the spread of diseases between and within farms (biosecurity) is essential for minimizing animal mortality and morbidity, as well as for reducing the risk of spread of zoonotic diseases. These effects are even greater in countries such as Iran, which have to deal with multiple ongoing epidemics of infectious disease. However, there is currently no published information about biosecurity practices on sheep and goat farms in Iran in published research. The aim of this study was to collect such information and to identify some of the factors affecting biosecurity practices. Data were gathered using a checklist and in-depth interviews with 99 nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists. Regression analysis was used to identify the relationships between the collected variables and the biosecurity scores. The results showed that neither within- nor between-farm disease prevention measures were appropriately applied on most farms (median total score of total biosecurity was 37.3/90; Q1 = 29.0 and Q3 = 44.7). Almost all the farmers reported slaughtering animals on farms and nobody properly disposed of the bodies of the dead animals. Additionally, the majority of the participants did not disinfect the umbilical cords of newborns. Of the collected variables, the annual mortality rate was associated with most within-farm biosecurity practices. The increase in annual mortality rates was associated with the regular cleaning of troughs (p = 0.03), preventing feed and water from being contaminated by urine and feces (p = 0.02), providing a clean and dry place for animals to rest (p = 0.05) and disinfecting the navel cord (p = 0.03). The results of this survey suggest that there is a clear need for extension programs to enhance Iranian and sheep and goat farmers’ perceptions and practices regarding biosecurity measures.

BoLA-DRB3 gene haplotypes show divergence in native Sudanese cattle from taurine and indicine breeds

Autochthonous Sudanese cattle breeds, namely Baggara for beef and Butana and Kenana for dairy, are characterized by their adaptive characteristics and high performance in hot and dry agro-ecosystems. They are thus used largely by nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists. We analyzed the diversity and genetic structure of the BoLA-DRB3 gene, a genetic locus linked to the immune response, for the indigenous cattle of Sudan and in the context of the global cattle repository. Blood samples (n = 225) were taken from three indigenous breeds (Baggara; n = 113, Butana; n = 60 and Kenana; n = 52) distributed across six regions of Sudan. Nucleotide sequences were genotyped using the sequence-based typing method. We describe 53 alleles, including seven novel alleles. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the protein pockets implicated in the antigen-binding function of the MHC complex revealed that pockets 4 and 9 (respectively) differentiate Kenana-Baggara and Kenana-Butana breeds from other breeds. Venn analysis of Sudanese, Southeast Asian, European and American cattle breeds with 115 alleles showed 14 were unique to Sudanese breeds. Gene frequency distributions of Baggara cattle showed an even distribution suggesting balancing selection, while the selection index (ω) revealed the presence of diversifying selection in several amino acid sites along the BoLA-DRB3 exon 2 of these native breeds. The results of several PCA were in agreement with clustering patterns observed on the neighbor joining (NJ) trees. These results provide insight into their high survival rate for different tropical diseases and their reproductive capacity in Sudan's harsh environment.

Family socioeconomic status and child telomere length among the Samburu of Kenya

Previous research in high-income countries suggests that children from families with lower socioeconomic status (SES) tend to have shorter telomere length – a biomarker of stress and cell aging – than children from families with greater social and economic resources. However, little is known about predictors of child telomere length in low-income settings. Data for the current study are from a sample of 214 Samburu children aged 1–9 years. The Samburu are semi-nomadic pastoralists who live in the Rift Valley of north-central Kenya. Samburu livelihood is based primarily on livestock, and polygynous marriage is common. Drawing on prior ethnographic research, we measured 14 culturally relevant indicators of family SES, including mother's education, head of household's education, whether the child is currently attending school, household spending, mother's employment history, head of household's employment history, mother's perceived wealth, whether the child lives in a modern house, livestock holdings (total, cows, sheep/goats, and camels), mother's wife number, and whether the child lives in a polygynous household. Telomere length was measured in salivary DNA by the quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) method. Using latent class analysis, we identified four groups of children that are similar based on the 14 indicators of family SES: Lower SES; Middle SES, Traditional; Middle SES, Modern; and Higher SES. SES classes were not significantly associated with child telomere length. In models examining individual indicators of SES, we found that telomere length was 0.57 standard deviations greater for children who lived in families in the lowest quartile of total livestock holdings compared to those in the highest quartile (b = 0.57, p = 0.03). While additional research is needed to identify the mechanisms underlying this counterintuitive finding, the current study highlights the importance of cultural context in shaping the social gradient in health.

Concepts and Perceptions of Northern Hebei´s Seminomadic Pastoralism in the Bronze Age

기북지역에서는 한반도(정주문화)와 달리 비정주문화가 확인되고, 이를 유목문화 계통으로 이해할 수 있다. 유목문화와 정주문화가 서로 상반되는 개념이기 때문에 고고자료 및 그 출토 양상에서 현격한 차이가 있다. 그중 생업경제의 차이가 가장 명확하고, 생업경제를 기준으로 목축과 농경의 비중에 따라 사회 형태를 다양하게구분할 수 있다. 기북지역은 반유목문화로 구분할 수 있고, 반유목문화는 목축을 주요 생계수단으로 삼으며, 이동생활을 영위하지만, 집단 내 극히 일부는 농경을 보조수단으로 삼는다. 청동기시대 기북지역에는 생업경제를 기준으로 반유목문화에 속하는 옥황묘문화와 낙타량유형이 있다. 반유목문화는 목축이 가장 대표적인 특징이다. 특히, 기북지역에서는 면양의 뼈가 다수 발견되는데, 면양을 목축하기 위해서는 염소와 말이 필요하다. 면양은 주변지역의 풀을 완전히 뜯어먹는 습성이 있기 때문에 다른 지역으로의 이동이 필수적이고, 다른 지역으로 이동하기 위해서 면양 무리를 이끄는 역할로 염소가 필요하다. 또한, 말은 유목문화의 유용한 이동수단으로 사용할 수 있다. 즉, 반유목문화는 기북지역에서 목축을 위한 이동생활을 영위한다. 반유목문화는 중심묘지를 통해 영역을 이해할 수 있다. 옥황묘문화의 중심묘지는 연경의 군도산 일대이고, 이지역은 사회적 중심지로 발전한다. 이 사회적 중심지를 통해 옥황묘문화는 집결의 장소 혹은 사회적 중심지의 기능을 획득할 수 있게 된다. 중심묘지는 다른 문화와의 경계지역이 되기도 한다. 낙타량유형 역시 기북지역 동북부에 대형의 중심묘지를 형성하고, 이 일대를 사회적 중심지로 활용하였으며, 하가점상층문화 및 비파형동검문화와의 경계지역으로 활용하였다. 동시에 옥황묘문화가 기북지역에 형성되기 이전까지 기북지역을 활동영역으로 삼고 이동생활을 영위한다. 즉, 옥황묘문화와 낙타량유형의 활동영역은 기북지역 전체로 이해할 수 있다. 결론적으로 지금까지 학계가 이해하여 온 반유목문화 및 유목문화의 영역을 새롭게 이해할 필요가 있고, 이영역에는 유적이 발견되지 않은 주변 지역까지 포함하여 인식해야 한다.

Improving provision of family planning among pastoralists in Kenya: Perspectives from health care providers, community and religious leaders

ABSTRACT There exist significant inequities in access to family planning (FP) in Kenya, particularly for nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists. Health care providers (HCP), are key in delivering FP services. Community leaders and religious leaders are also key influencers in women’s decisions to use FP. We found limited research exploring the perspectives of both HCPs and these local leaders in this context. We conducted semi-structured interviews with HCPs (n=4) working in facilities in Wajir and Mandera, and community leaders (n=4) and religious leaders (n=4) from the nomadic and semi-nomadic populations the facilities serve. We conducted deductive and inductive thematic analysis. Three overarching themes emerged: perception of FP as a health priority, explanations for low FP use, and recommendations to improve access. Four overlapping sub-themes explained low FP use: desire for large families, tension in FP decision-making, religion and culture, and fears about FP. Providers were from different socio-demographic backgrounds to the communities they served, who faced structural marginalisation from health and other services. Programmes to improve FP access should be delivered alongside interventions targeting the immediate health concerns of pastoralist communities, incorporating structural changes. HCPs that are aware of religious and cultural reasons for non-use, play a key role in improving access.

What do intra-household experiments measure? Evidence from the lab and field

Household economists have recently begun to use laboratory experiments to study behavior between spouses. While several connect inefficiency in the lab to specific constraints on decision-making (e.g. information asymmetries), few connect behavior in the lab to behavior and decision-making structures in the field. We study both efficiency and the decision-making process in semi-nomadic pastoralist households in Senegal with detailed survey data, vignettes, and public goods games. We find that inefficiency in a public goods game is correlated with larger gender gaps in milk production, an indicator of productive inefficiency at home. However, households that behave more efficiently in the lab report less collaborative decision-making at home. Our results suggest that lab games between spouses are measuring behavior meaningful to field outcomes, but that collaborative decision-making is not necessary to achieve efficiency.

Heavy metal blood concentrations in association with sociocultural characteristics, anthropometry and anemia among Kenyan adolescents

ABSTRACT Objectives: To measure heavy metal concentrations among Kenyan youth and quantify associations with sociocultural, demographic, and health factors as well as anthropometry. Methods: Using data from a study of semi-nomadic pastoralists in Samburu County, Kenya, we measured blood concentrations of lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and cadmium (Cd) in 161 adolescents. We identified sociocultural, demographic and health characteristics associated with each metal and quantified the association between metals and adolescent anthropometry. Results: Median blood concentrations of Pb, Cd, and Hg were 1.82 µg/dL, 0.24 µg/L and 0.16 µg/L, respectively. Place of residence (highlands vs lowlands) was a determinant of metal concentrations. Hg was inversely related to anemia, and metals were not associated with anthropometry. Conclusions: In this population of Samburu adolescents, median Pb and Cd blood concentrations were higher than other North American or European biomonitoring studies. These findings motivate further investigation into the environmental sources of metals in this community.