Semi-natural Woodland Research Articles

1100-years history of transformation of the East European forest-steppe into arable land: Case study from Kursk region (Russia)

Large parts of the East European forest-steppe are covered by agricultural and pastoral landscapes with decreasing proportions of semi-natural meadow steppes and fragments of semi-natural woodland. Although numerous palynological records indicate that a total deforestation occurred in the last 500 years, the details of the transformation from natural vegetation into an agrarian landscape are still lacking as well as an evaluation of the political role in this process. This study focuses on the vegetation and fire history at the northern edge of the forest-steppe in the Kursk region (Russia) and aim to reconstruct the transformation process in its historical context. New pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs and charcoal records with decennial to centennial resolution obtained from the Seim River region enable a comprehensive reconstruction of the local and regional landscape history over the last 1,100 years. The palynological records provide unique insights into the heterogeneous vegetation cover of microregions and evidence spatial asynchronous deforestation and crop field creation. Our findings highlight a crucial role of political systems on the formation of agro-pastoral landscapes with small remaining forest patches of today. The heterogeneity of the natural vegetation distribution before major deforestation as well as the duration of human impact should be considered in ecosystem restoration projects. All raw data are submitted to PANGAEA database (https://www.pangaea.de/: Peny PDI-34573, Razdolye PDI-34620). All pictures of NPP are submitted to NPP-ID (http://non-pollen-palynomorphs.uni-goettingen.de/).

Irregular silviculture and stand structural effects on the plant community in an ancient semi-natural woodland

Plants associated with traditional forms of coppice management are affected by changes in, or cessation of, stand management which produce differences in structure, usually in the direction of high forest. The habitat structure, ground flora richness, and composition of an ancient woodland in southern England were compared across three distinct management treatments: traditional Coppice (the cyclical cutting of underwood on rotations), Limited Intervention (representing the effective cessation of management), and Irregular High Forest silviculture (a form of continuous cover forestry using single and small group selective tree harvesting). Coppice and Irregular silviculture showed a more complex woody stand structure whereas Limited Intervention was strongly correlated with closed-canopy, single-storied structures and no developing understorey. Increased bramble Rubus fruticosus cover was strongly associated with Irregular silviculture, bare ground mostly with the limited intervention closed-canopy stands. Distinct plant-habitat associations were identified across stand management types with the greatest differences between Limited Intervention and the two active interventions. Overall vascular plant species and Coppice group species were lowest in Limited Intervention stands. Using ancient woodland indicator and Coppice plant species and groups, we found a similar community pattern between Coppice and Irregular silviculture. More ancient woodland species were accommodated within the comparatively heterogenous woodland habitat associated with active silvicultural interventions of Coppice and Irregular High Forest management. The study indicates that the introduction of Irregular silviculture as practiced here can conserve most ancient woodland and Coppice plants associated with traditional coppicing, a practice which has declined significantly in the UK since the late 19th Century.

A review of the vascular plant flora of the Cairngorms Connect project area, Scotland, and some possible implications of forest expansion to the natural tree line

Cairngorms Connect, a partnership of four adjoining land owners, is committed to a 200-year vision to enhance and restore habitats, species and ecological processes across a 592 km2 area within the Cairngorms National Park. This will be achieved by, inter alia, expanding woodland to its natural altitudinal limit, including high altitude sub-alpine scrub. All or parts of six native Caledonian pinewoods occur here, c.26% of the national total. Ancient, semi-natural woodland within the Cairngorms Connect area is 43% of the National Park total. Modelling of the extent of potential-natural woodland (sensu Peterken, 1981, 1996) indicates that below 600 m all terrestrial habitats are potentially capable of supporting some degree of tree and scrub cover. 899 vascular plant taxa have been recorded here, of which 693 are native to the area. 7.6% of native taxa are endemic to Great Britain (and Ireland) or to Scotland; these are mainly Hieracia (Hawkweeds). Of the native taxa, 23% are of national, and 11% of regional conservation concern. Few native taxa are widespread within the Cairngorms Connect area, most are local or rare. 40% of native taxa have been recorded in five or less monads (1 km squares), with 16% recorded from just a single monad. 12% of native taxa are associated with shaded locations or semi-shade (Ellenberg Light values 3-5). 51% of taxa are found in partial shade to well lit locations (values 6 and 7) and 37% of taxa in well lit to fully lit locations (values 8 and 9). Native taxa with Light values of 6-7 are the most frequent in 92% of monads with more than 10 recorded taxa. 65% of taxa of national conservation concern favour well lit to fully lit locations (Light values 8-9). Shading of plants, at altitudes below the potential tree line, is strongly influenced by the extent of woodland and scrub and its structure, and by herbivore grazing levels determining height and structure of the field layer. To achieve forest expansion to the natural tree line by natural regeneration will require sustained low levels of grazing and browsing, for decades, or longer. This is already leading to a taller field layer and an increased density of tree regeneration. 40% of native taxa may be negatively impacted, if existing and new woodland becomes dense with a high level of shading. Of these 'at risk' taxa, 50% have maximum height less than 50 cm and may be especially at risk from sustained periods of low grazing. Limited disturbance and lack of open sites and bare ground for seedling recruitment is another potential constraint on vascular plants. The issue of vegetation succession and shading, leading to possible loss of plant diversity is likely to be much less of an issue at altitudes around and above the tree line. Here there are likely to be benefits, with possible expansion of tall herb communities.

Irregular Silviculture Effects on the Plant Community in an Ancient Semi-Natural Woodland

Irregular Silviculture Effects on the Plant Community in an Ancient Semi-Natural Woodland

Persistence of Seed Dispersal in Agroecosystems: Effects of Landscape Modification and Intensive Soil Management Practices in Avian Frugivores, Frugivory and Seed Deposition in Olive Croplands

Farming impacts animal-mediated seed dispersal through mechanisms operating on at least two spatial scales. First, at the landscape scale, through habitat loss and land conversion to agriculture/livestock grazing, and second, at the farm scale, via a local intensification of agricultural practices. These two scales of farming impact seed dispersal function but have rarely been integrated. In particular, studies evaluating the effect of agriculture on the seed dispersal function of frugivorous birds in Mediterranean ecosystems are lacking. This study evaluates the role of landscape transformation, from fruit-rich woodland habitats to olive grove landscapes, together with local intensive practices of soil management on the persistence of the seed dispersal function for Mediterranean fleshy-fruited plants in olive landscapes of south Spain. We used bird censuses, mist-nets, and seed traps to characterize avian frugivore assemblages, frugivory, and seed deposition in the seminatural woodland habitat (SNWH) patches and olive fields of 40 olives farms spanning 20 localities distributed across the whole range of olive cultivation in Andalusia (southern Spain). We found that despite the remarkable dispersal function of olive grove landscapes, avian frugivore abundance and diversity, frugivory, and seed arrival decreased in olive fields compared to SNWH patches. Likewise, SNWH cover loss and/or olive growing expansion decreased avian frugivory and seed arrival. Interestingly, the habitat effects in the olive farms often depended on the landscape context. In particular, less diverse fruit-eating bird assemblages pooled in SNWH patches as olive grove cover increased or SNWH decreased in the landscape, while remaining relatively invariant in the olive fields. Finally, compared to conventional intensive agriculture, low-intensity management increased frugivory and seed deposition. We conclude that olive fields are less permeable to frugivores than expected due to the agroforest-like nature of these landscapes and that the presence of SNWH patches is crucial for the maintenance of frugivory and seed dispersal in agricultural landscapes. These results evidence that woodland habitat loss by olive expansion and intensive practices seriously threaten the dispersal service in olive-dominated landscapes. Maintenance, restoration, and promotion of woodland patches should be prioritized for the conservation of seed dispersal service and for enhancing the functional connectivity in human-shaped olive landscapes.

Applied aerial spectroscopy: A case study on remote sensing of an ancient and semi-natural woodland.

An area of ancient and semi-natural woodland (ASNW) has been investigated by applied aerial spectroscopy using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with multispectral image (MSI) camera. A novel normalised difference spectral index (NDSI) algorithm was developed using principal component analysis (PCA). This novel NDSI was then combined with a simple segmentation method of thresholding and applied for the identification of native tree species as well as the overall health of the woodland. Using this new approach allowed the identification of trees at canopy level, across 7.4 hectares (73,934 m2) of ASNW, as oak (53%), silver birch (37%), empty space (9%) and dead trees (1%). This UAV derived data was corroborated, for its accuracy, by a statistically valid ground-level field study that identified oak (47%), silver birch (46%) and dead trees (7.4%). This simple innovative approach, using a low-cost multirotor UAV with MSI camera, is both rapid to deploy, was flown around 100 m above ground level, provides useable high resolution (5.3 cm / pixel) data within 22 mins that can be interrogated using readily available PC-based software to identify tree species. In addition, it provides an overall oversight of woodland health and has the potential to inform a future woodland regeneration strategy.

The Use of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for Tree Phenotyping Studies

A strip of 20th-century landscape woodland planted alongside a 17th to mid-18th century ancient and semi-natural woodland (ASNW) was investigated by applied aerial spectroscopy using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with a multispectral image camera (MSI). A simple classification approach of normalized difference spectral index (NDSI), derived using principal component analysis (PCA), enabled the identification of the non-native trees within the 20th-century boundary. The tree species within this boundary, classified by NDSI, were further segmented by the machine learning segmentation method of k-means clustering. This combined innovative approach has enabled the identification of multiple tree species in the 20th-century boundary. Phenotyping of trees at canopy level using the UAV with MSI, across 8052 m2, identified black pine (23%), Norway maple (19%), Scots pine (12%), and sycamore (19%) as well as native trees (oak and silver birch, 27%). This derived data was corroborated by field identification at ground-level, over an area of 6785 m2, that confirmed the presence of black pine (26%), Norway maple (30%), Scots pine (10%), and sycamore (14%) as well as other trees (oak and silver birch, 20%). The benefits of using a UAV, with an MSI camera, for monitoring tree boundaries next to a new housing development are demonstrated.

Intensive forestry and biodiversity: Use of poplar plantations by woodpeckers in a lowland area of Northern Italy

A growing portion of woodlands worldwide is allocated to tree plantations. These are intensively managed and support significantly lower biodiversity than natural forests. However, given their rising extension and importance, understanding how to enhance the role of plantations in aiding biodiversity is crucial. In the present study, we assessed the suitability of traditional poplar plantations for two woodpecker species (Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major and Lesser Spotted Woodpecker Dryobates minor), in the western Po Plain (Northern Italy). During Spring 2019, we counted woodpeckers in 29 plots located in plantations. As a comparison, 30 plots placed in semi-natural woodlands nearby were also surveyed. Moreover, within plantations, we monitored the breeding activity of woodpeckers by camera inspection, and we recorded micro-habitat, stand, and landscape variables for every plot. Densities of both species were significantly lower in plantations than in woodlands. In plantations, the occurrence of Lesser Spotted Woodpecker and abundances of Great Spotted Woodpecker were positively related to the amount and size of standing dead trees, respectively. No relationship with the landscape composition were detected. Only 11 woodpecker nests were found in a surveyed area of 274 ha, indicating scarce breeding activity. In stands with breeding woodpeckers, the loss of revenue due to the presence of dead trees ranged from 0.15% to 1.81%. We conclude that poplar plantations are marginal habitats for woodpeckers. To improve the suitability of plantations for these species, a management strategy should pursue the retention of standing dead wood, the increment of natural elements within and close by the plantation and the establishment of multi-age stands. Simultaneous implementation of these measures would buffer the detrimental effects of intensive management, thus acting as a step forward towards the achievement of a multipurpose forest.

Can epiphytic lichens of remnant Atlantic oakwood trees in a planted ancient woodland site survive early stages of woodland restoration?

Key messageEpiphytic lichens of remnant Atlantic oakwood trees, enclosed within a recently planted conifer matrix, show ability to survive early stages of woodland restoration (conifer removal).ContextAtlantic oakwood, ancient semi-natural woodland (ASNW), supports important epiphytic lichens. Fragmented ASNW, historically in-filled with conifers, are now being restored to reflect ASNW tree and ground flora character. Concerns exist that sudden and total removal of the conifer matrix will be detrimental to the epiphyte diversity of remnant trees retained within the former plantation.AimsHere, we ask whether an unintended consequence of habitat restoration is the loss of epiphyte populations on remnant trees.MethodsDynamics of ground flora development were studied at one 50-ha site on the west coast of Scotland using indicator species occurrence and species traits. Change in cover of lichen species was determined and lichen vitality was assessed in two Lobaria species using chlorophyll fluorescence as a proxy. Assessments pre-, post- and nine years after conifer removal were made in plantation areas (containing remnant oak trees) and ASNW areas.ResultsRe-vegetation of the ground flora was predominantly by ASNW vegetation. Species richness and occurrence of native woodland indicator species increased and the community showed stronger competitor traits. Lichen vitality was initially reduced but recovered. Tests showed change in the abundance of key lichen species and lichen community diversity was non-significant despite the loss of four lichen species on remnant trees.ConclusionGround flora dynamics indicate site recovery was underway within eight years of restoration activities and epiphytic lichens although variable in response were in this study largely unaffected, this restoration approach could be appropriate for other Atlantic oakwoods where lichen conservation is an objective.

Transpiration and photosynthesis of holm oak trees in southern Spain

“Dehesas”, the Iberian semi-natural woodlands based on large holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) trees, represent a key agroforestry system in Spain and Portugal sustaining relevant economic activities (e.g. “iberico” pork feeding, truffle) and ecosystem services. Despite of their importance, scarce information is still available regarding both the transpiration (Ep) and photosynthesis of holm oaks growing in dehesas and the effects of irrigation on these fluxes. Two experiments were performed in Espiel and Hinojosa del Duque (southern Spain) where sap flow was measured in large trees between 2009 and 2011 and photosynthesis was measured with a transitory-closed chamber in smaller trees at different moments of 2009. In 2009, half of the trees equipped with sap flow sensors were drip irrigated and half were rainfed. However, the supply of irrigation barely affected Ep and shoot water potential. The seasonal course of Ep peaked in late spring and decreased gradually, reaching minimum values during winter. Vapor pressure deficit (VPD) exerted a strong control over canopy conductance and its seasonal variation was identified as a major driver for the observed patterns of Ep. Photosynthesis showed a similar course as that of Ep but there was a second smaller peak in autumn. Seasonal water use efficiency was remarkably high due to the reduced summer Ep. Our results also indicate that hyperbolic models of canopy conductance and water use efficiency in response to VPD may be used to estimate diurnal and seasonal Ep and net photosynthesis of holm oak if the tree size and leaf area density are known.

Patterns of vertebrate richness across global anthromes: prioritizing conservation beyond biomes and ecoregions

There is a clear need to refocus the way we prioritize conservation actions at a global scale to incorporate human systems. Anthromes have been suggested as one tool for integrating anthropogenic effects on ecosystems, but spatially explicit comparisons of biodiversity patterns are limited at a global extent. To address this gap, we used global data sets of anthromes and terrestrial vertebrate richness. We ranked anthromes by richness to all and threatened species at a global scale, temperate and tropical extents, and within major geographic regions. We tested for correlations between overall richness and count of threatened species, between taxonomic groups (birds, mammals, amphibians), and between taxa and conservation actions. At the global scale, there is high variation in vertebrate species richness by anthrome with low species richness in wildlands and higher richness in villages, rangelands, and woodlands. Threatened species distribution follows a similar pattern with high numbers of threatened species in village and remote seminatural woodland anthromes. Analyzes at temperate and tropical extents suggests unique opportunities in different regions, for example when considering the value of land sparing or sharing. There is clear heterogeneity across geographic regions. Richness in anthromes and hotspots are spatially aligned across all taxa but not for threatened taxa. Protection was negatively correlated with threatened bird richness. Human modified ecosystems provide opportunities for conservation and global and regional ranking of anthromes helps identify priorities that can complement biome and ecoregion-based prioritization. Currently, much of conservation research and prioritization is in wildlands or perceived natural landscapes, however this data shows a clear need to focus conservation efforts on seminatural, managed, and residential lands. These data would be helpful for global conservation organizations as an updated framework that can be used to prioritize global resource allocation while considering both ecological and social systems.

The effects of a zoo environment on free‐living, native small mammal species

One of the main threats to native species conservation is urbanisation. It is causing changes to natural habitats and species composition. Urban green spaces have shown to have conservation value for native species by providing safe spaces in urban areas. They typically contain a variety of habitats and plant species which is correlated with greater abundance and diversity of small mammal species. Zoos are a vital resource for animal conservation and, in some instances, could be considered as an urban green space for native species conservation. Their unique environment provides free-living, native species an abundance of resources including food and shelter. This project involved the live trapping of free-living small mammal species (<40 g) between enclosures in Dudley Zoological Gardens to study the effects of the zoo environment. There were no significant differences found between the total number of captures and trap proximity to enclosures. There was a significant difference in total captures found between different enclosure trapping areas. Generalized linear mixed models were fitted to the data and there were significant relationships between abundance and both habitat type and enclosure species. Habitats associated with semi-natural woodland had the greatest diversity and total captures of small mammals. Total captures were lower in trapping areas that were associated with predatory species. Similar to research on green spaces, habitat was an important factor determining abundance, but predator enclosures were a factor unique to zoos. This study illustrates the potential of zoos as an urban green space and for the study of small mammals.

Mono-specific forest plantations are valuable bat habitats: implications for wind energy development

Near-natural or semi-natural forests such as relatively undisturbed and old deciduous or mixed woodland are considered worth protecting and ecologically valuable habitats for bat conservation. In contrast, mono-specific forest plantations are considered ecologically less valuable; thus, decision-makers recommend these plantations as suitable locations for wind power stations and therefore want to further expand wind turbines in these habitats. This is expected to have a strong negative impact on the landscape because forests would be cleared for wind turbine pads and access roads and wind turbines rise above the trees with adverse impacts for bats. Therefore, we argue that, in light of bat conservation, the suitability of forest plantations for wind energy development is not, per se, warranted and that implications of wind power stations, even in mono-specific forest plantations, should be assessed and evaluated. We conducted long-term bat activity monitoring and recorded bat echolocation calls above the canopies of different forest sites (coniferous monoculture plantations and semi-natural mixed deciduous forests) in Germany and compared different forest types in terms of species richness, total bat activity, activity of the three bat species groups and species composition. Generalised linear models revealed that forest type and the amount of forest biotopes did not enhance bat activity. Ordination showed that species composition was not affected by forest type, location and connectivity. Mono-specific forest plantations can harbour a diverse bat fauna with high species activity and are, therefore, valuable bat habitats just as near-natural or semi-natural woodlands are. Environmental impact assessment and mitigation measures are vital in all forest types before and after planning for wind energy turbines. In particular, future planning and approval processes must consider the importance of mono-specific forest plantations for bat species protection.

Irregular silviculture positively influences multiple bat species in a lowland temperate broadleaf woodland

Changing economics in the 20th century led to losses and fragmentation of semi-natural woodland in Britain and to a reduction in active woodland management with many becoming increasingly neglected, even-aged and with closed canopy. Lack of woodland management is known to contribute to declines in some taxonomic groups, for example birds. However, the response of bats to changes in woodland structure are poorly understood. We compared two measures of bat activity, derived from static acoustic recorders across 120 sample plots in coppice, irregular high forest (uneven-aged, continuous cover) and limited intervention (under-managed, even-aged) management stands, within a large tract of ancient woodland in southern England. Bat species richness was highest in irregular high forest stands, and there were significant differences in occupancy rates for most bat species across stand management types. Coppice recorded low activity of several bat species and irregular high forest showed high occupancy rates, including for Barbastelle Barbastella barbastellus, which is IUCN listed as near threatened. The occupancy rates in stand management types differed for some bat species between mid- and late summer counts, suggesting seasonal variation in habitat use. Within stands, most bat species were associated with opened canopy, lower growing stocks and reduced densities of understorey, and to a lesser extent, with large-girthed trees and presence of deadwood snags. In some cases, species responded to a given habitat variable similarly across the three stand management types, whereas in others, the response differed among stand management types. For example, increased numbers of large-girthed trees benefitted a number of bat species within coppice where these were least common, but not in irregular stands. Irregular silviculture high forest appears to provide many of the structural attributes that positively influence occupancy of several woodland bat species, including Barbastella barbastellus.

Saproxylic beetles in pre-commercially thinned Norway spruce stands and woodland key habitats: How do conservation values differ?

In even-aged clear-cutting forestry, the biodiversity effects of treatments must be well understood for proper forest management and conservation. While biodiversity on clear-cuts has been much studied, other common forestry stages such as thinning have received less attention. We studied saproxylic beetles, a highly diverse group with many red-listed species, in young spruce stands 2–5 years after pre-commercial thinning. This intervention often creates sun-exposed dead wood, also of deciduous trees such as birch, potentially favoring many of these beetle species. To help evaluate this forestry stage, we compared the saproxylic beetle fauna of 10 thinned spruce stands with that of 10 geographically matched semi-natural woodland key habitats (WKHs) in Sweden. Local and overall species numbers of saproxylic beetles were similar in the two forest types, but they differed in species composition. Compared with WKHs, thinned stands had an overall lower number of species on deciduous wood, fungivorous species, and red-listed or previously red-listed species. Between-stand diversity was also lower for thinned than for WKH stands. Thus, while pre-commercially thinned spruce forests hosted many saproxylic beetle species, including some red-listed ones, WKHs provide habitat for a more variable fauna, especially for beetle groups of conservation concern. Woodland key habitats, although small, are a valuable complement to young production forests of spruce for the conservation of saproxylic beetle species.

Regional-Scale In-Depth Analysis of Soil Fungal Diversity Reveals Strong pH and Plant Species Effects in Northern Europe.

Soil microbiome has a pivotal role in ecosystem functioning, yet little is known about its build-up from local to regional scales. In a multi-year regional-scale survey involving 1251 plots and long-read third-generation sequencing, we found that soil pH has the strongest effect on the diversity of fungi and its multiple taxonomic and functional groups. The pH effects were typically unimodal, usually both direct and indirect through tree species, soil nutrients or mold abundance. Individual tree species, particularly Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, and Populus x wettsteinii, and overall ectomycorrhizal plant proportion had relatively stronger effects on the diversity of biotrophic fungi than saprotrophic fungi. We found strong temporal sampling and investigator biases for the abundance of molds, but generally all spatial, temporal and microclimatic effects were weak. Richness of fungi and several functional groups was highest in woodlands and around ruins of buildings but lowest in bogs, with marked group-specific trends. In contrast to our expectations, diversity of soil fungi tended to be higher in forest island habitats potentially due to the edge effect, but fungal richness declined with island distance and in response to forest fragmentation. Virgin forests supported somewhat higher fungal diversity than old non-pristine forests, but there were no differences in richness between natural and anthropogenic habitats such as parks and coppiced gardens. Diversity of most fungal groups suffered from management of seminatural woodlands and parks and thinning of forests, but especially for forests the results depended on fungal group and time since partial harvesting. We conclude that the positive effects of tree diversity on overall fungal richness represent a combined niche effect of soil properties and intimate associations.

Soil organic matter stabilization and carbon-cycling enzyme activity are affected by land management.

Increasing carbon (C) storage in soil is a key aspect of climate change mitigation strategies and requires an understanding of the impacts of land management on soil C cycling. The primary aim of this study is to investigate how land management impacts key soil organic matter stabilization and cycling processes affecting soil C storage. Soil sampling was undertaken across seven transects crossing the boundary between agriculture and forestry. The transects covered 3 pasture (AP) and 4 arable (AA) fields combined with 3 young secondary woodlands (50-60 years old - WY) and 4 mature/ancient semi-natural woodlands (110 to >400 years old - WM). Physical fractionation of soil organic matter pools was performed, together with pH, carbon and nitrogen content, as well as activity of four enzymes associated with C transformation in the soil. Woodland soils were associated with significantly higher content of light fraction C and greater enzyme activity in comparison to agricultural soils. Enzyme activity and soil organic C decreased with soil depth regardless of land-use type. We did not, however, observe any effect of the distance from the land use boundary on either enzyme activity and soil C pools. Our results indicate that analysis of soil organic matter (SOM) fractions can act as an indicator of decomposition rates of SOM in forest and agricultural ecosystems.

Breeding bird communities within a parkland-woodland continuum: the distinctiveness of wood-pasture

ABSTRACT Open-grown veteran trees and wood-pasture are landscape features of high nature conservation value in Europe. Relationships are described between vegetation structure and breeding bird communities in a landscape rich in veteran oaks. Four habitat types were examined: open parkland devoid of scrub and small trees, open-canopy wood-pasture with a complex structure, closed-canopy semi-natural woodland, and closed-canopy managed woodland. Numbers of bird species, bird diversity and numbers of individual songbirds were consistently lowest in parkland. Species composition of bird communities in parkland was strikingly different to that in all other sites and the species composition of open-canopy wood-pasture was distinct from that of closed-canopy woodland. Differences in bird communities between sites were associated with differences in vegetation structure, notably the density of vegetation in the field and shrub layers. The density of veteran trees (>100 cm dbh) had little measurable effect on the characteristics of the bird communities. Open-canopy wood-pasture, with open-grown trees and complex low vegetation, including scrub, supports bird communities that complement those in closed-canopy woodland and delivers conservation benefits through its relatively high habitat heterogeneity. Rewilding, and even the spread of ash dieback, offers opportunities for creating more open-canopy grazed woodland in western Europe.

Palaeoecological evidence from buried topsoils and colluvial layers at the Bronze Age fortification Corneşti-Iarcuri, SW Romania: results from palynological, sedimentological, chronostratigraphical and plant macrofossil analyses

Located in the Romanian Banat region, the Late Bronze Age (LBA) fortification Cornesti-Iarcuri is the largest known prehistoric settlement in Europe. Archaeobotanical and geoarchaeological investigations have targeted the reconstruction of vegetation, land use practices and subsistence strategies at the site, together with related human impact and environmental changes in the wider study area. Since colluvia constitute valuable archives in terms of landscape history and anthropogenic disturbance, one major focus was put on floodplain profiles. In the valleys, two generations of colluvium prevailed which were separated by fossil topsoils. Based on several radiocarbon datings, a chronology of events, including distinct phases of geomorphological activity and stability, has been established. Some of the buried palaeosurfaces contained pollen in sufficient concentrations to confirm off-site data from the Vinga area, where the regional vegetation during the Middle Copper Age consisted of Tilia-dominated woodlands with steppe elements. Following a major Late Copper Age deforestation phase that also led to considerable soil erosion, the gradual formation of a cultural landscape is documented by a progressive decline in tree cover in which Quercus gained relative importance, and a continuous presence of land use indicators. Plant macro-remains from archaeological excavations underpin both the openness of the semi-natural woodlands during the pre-fortification era and the increase of animal husbandry and farming in the LBA. Despite evident settlement pressure, it proved to be a geomorphologically stable phase. Towards the Early Iron Age, the values of anthropogenic markers in on-site pollen spectra rose to values comparable to those in surface samples.

Fosetyl-aluminium injection controls root rot disease affecting Quercus suber in southern Spain

In Spain, natural and managed cork oak woodlands are severely affected by decline caused by the root rot oomycetes Phytophthora cinnamomi and Pythium spiculum. The need for environmental-friendly disease management makes the use of resistance inducers a suitable option. As the use of phosphite is prohibited in Spain, trunk injections of fosetyl-aluminium were tested in a seminatural cork oak woodland (dehesa). Sixty cork oaks in three different defoliation classes (asymptomatic, slight, and moderate defoliation) were selected for fosetyl- aluminium or control (water) trunk injections, and periodically checked for defoliation and presence of both pathogens in roots and rhizosphere soil. Three years after treatments, fosetyl-aluminium injection significantly decreased defoliation in treated cork oaks in comparison with water-injected controls, regardless of the initial defoliation class considered. Changes in inoculum density in the rhizosphere or presence of the two pathogens in roots were not significantly dependent on treatment. However, a trend to a lower presence of pathogens in roots of treated oaks was observed with increasing soil inoculum densities. Fosetyl-aluminium, a phosphonate fungicide registered in the European Union, was experimentally proved to protect cork oaks against root rot caused by P. cinnamomi and Py. spiculum, even exhibiting a therapeutic effect on preexisting infections. This effective measure can therefore be used to fight against this highly destructive disease in seminatural woodlands and in protected natural ecosystems.