Semi-arid Village Research Articles

Household domestic water consumption patterns in a rural semi-arid village: A case study of Kumbha village in Hisar district, Haryana

The need for water in India is increasing as a result of development, both in urban and rural areas. This could exacerbate tensions and conflicts over the distribution of water sources. Understanding the specifics of actual water use on a household level is critical for water demand management. As a result, based on questionnaires and interview surveys of 105 households consisting 10 per cent of total households, this paper investigates the pattern of domestic water consumption in semi-arid Kumbha village of Hisar district in Haryana state of India, in order to better understand how local communities in the region relate to water. The study looked at household water usage on a daily and activity basis, as well as the sources, quality, duration of water supply, and awareness of water storage. According to the study's findings, the village's daily average water usage is 105 per person per capita per day. Cloth washing uses the most water utilized activity. The Calculated value of chi square test is greater than tabulated value hence null hypothesis is rejected at 5% level of significance. It is found that the people with high income utilize more water than the others. However most of residents are dissatisfied with the duration of their water supply, and 38 per cent are unaware of conservation technologies. This needs to be addressed immediately by affecting public perception through the media and conducting public awareness campaigns. It is believed that the study's findings may assist Indian policymakers and planners in optimising current water resources for rural development.

Viewpoint: Defeating the water crisis: Community matters!

Community participation is critical in enhancing rural sustainability in terms of managing indigenous water harvesting structures. The long-standing illusion that the water crisis can only be tackled through a top down strategy design has been shattered by a successful community engagement model using the social, financial, and human capital of the community in the semi-arid village Laporiya of Rajasthan in India. The positive externalities created through the process of community engagement are not only via knowledge sharing but also water sharing with neighboring villages. The appropriate policy suggestion for the positive externalities so created is to build an extra market for ‘ideas’ creating incentives for these innovative practices in rural settings by allowing them to flourish in a hazard free manner, free from the risk of encroachment of common lands, or of future inter-sectoral resource conflict arising out of any industrial activity. The state-managed community participation has also been successful in reviving and creating water harvesting structures, but the sustainability of such program is at stake, in the absence of social capital. Communities do matter but in ways that sustain the local economy.

Weather variation and temporary labor migration: a panel data analysis for select semi-arid villages in India

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to understand the relationship between weather variation and temporary labor migration. In doing so, we investigate how labor migration is used as an adaptation strategy to weather variation for the select Indian semi-arid villages. We use crop yield deviation as a proxy variable for the weather variation at the household level. In order to investigate the objective of the study, we employ panel data of 210 households using Village Dynamic South Asia (VDSA) data set of six villages from the state of Telangana and Maharashtra for the period 2005–2014. We have used village, state and aggregate level logistic regression models to demonstrate how factors at each of these levels can influence temporary labor migration trajectories. The study finds that the score of crop yield deviation for the non-migrant households is higher as compared to migrant households, which shows that migrant households have a higher adaptive capacity to weather variation as compared to their counterpart households. Further, the empirical evidence from the logistic model shows that along with demographic and socio-economic factors, weather variation influences the temporary migration at aggregate level (full sample estimation). In addition to this, we also find that weather variation is statistically significant in determining temporary migration for entire Maharashtra at state level estimation and only one village (Kalman) at village level estimation.

Intensity of labour migration and its determinants: insights from Indian semi-arid villages

The aim of this study was to examine the potential factors that determine the intensity of labour migration at household level for selected semi-arid villages in two states of India: Telangana and Maharashtra. In doing so, we use panel data for selected migrant households that were compiled from the household survey conducted by International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) for the period 2005–2014. We follow empirical analysis by employing state and aggregate level least squares dummy variable (LSDV) models to demonstrate how factors at each of these level can influence intensity of migration. The study finds that the main determinants of intensity of migration are family size, dependency ratio, age of the head of the household, ownership of the land and livestock owned by the household. Apart from these major factors, share of remittances in household’s total income mostly drives the migration intensity in each of the estimated regression models.

Towards a Horticultural Society: Class, Caste and Masculinities in Rural Andhra Pradesh

India has seen a deceleration in the area and yield growth rates of many food and cash crops since the 1990s. The area and production of horticulture has, however, grown impressively in the post-liberalization period. This paper is a case study of this “restructuring” in a semi-arid village in Andhra Pradesh from a longue duree perspective. It suggests that horticulture has enabled a small class of pioneering Reddy farmers and some Kuruba farmers (a local “Backward Caste”)—who have better access to groundwater—to reinforce their economic position in the village. But a majority of small OBC dry-land farmers, the late-coming aspirants, are being excluded from horticulture due to the ruinous cost of groundwater. The paper contends that by recreating established idioms of aggressive masculinity, the aspiring OBC horticulturists construe horticulture as an arena in which to perform as virile, risk-taking “new farmers” to transact honor with other horticulturists and dry-land farmers within and across castes.

Exploring the relationship between local institutions in SAT India and adaptation to climate variability

This paper examines the relationship between local institutions and adaptation to climate variability in four semi-arid villages in India. Based on a qualitative survey, it draws attention to the constraints that farming households face, the role of institutions, and the implications for their capacities to adapt. Using an institutional framework, the study examines the role of local institutions in facilitating community adaptation to perceived climate variability. It was found that at the institutional and community level farmers rely on government schemes that provide social safety nets and the private sector such as moneylenders as sources of adaptation options regarding access to credit. Serious constraints emerged, however, in terms of adaptation to what may be a more challenging future. These constraints were further explored by means of grounded theory. The lack of collective feeling and action has hindered bargaining for better market prices and the development of alternate livelihood options. The need for better financial inclusion and access to more formal systems of finance is necessary to increase the overall adaptive capacity of households. During crisis situations or climatic shocks, the absence of these systems means the sale of household assets and resources especially among small and landless groups of farmers. Overall, rural households perceive that public, civic, and private institutions play a significant role in shielding them against the adverse effects of climate variability. The perceived importance of different institutions is, however, different across different categories of farmers, women, and labourers.

A survey of household domestic water consumption patterns in rural semi-arid village, India

In India, as a result of development, the demand for water is increasing both in urban and rural areas. This may increase tensions and disputes over sharing of water resources. For water demand management, it is crucial to know the details of actual water use on a household level. Therefore, this paper explores the pattern of domestic water consumption in semi-arid Dhani Mohabbatpur village of Hisar district in Haryana state of India, to improve the understanding of how local communities in the region relate to water, based on questionnaires and interview surveys of 763 households. The study has examined the households daily and activity wise water consumption, sources, quality, duration, frequency of water supply, distance of different sources and the level of awareness about rainwater harvesting. Results of the study revealed that the daily average water consumption for the village was found to be 117.0 l per person per capita per day (SD = 35.8). Washing of clothes consumes the highest amount of water, whereas 85 % of the households are using government water supplies with very safe water quality. However, 77 % households are not satisfied with duration of water supply and 86 % do not have awareness about rainwater harvesting technology. This needs to be addressed immediately by changing public perception through media and by organizing public awareness programs. It is hoped that the results of the study would benefit the policy and planning executives in India in optimizing the existing water resources for rural development.

Dry season ecology of Anopheles gambiae complex mosquitoes at larval habitats in two traditionally semi-arid villages in Baringo, Kenya

BackgroundPre-adult stages of malaria vectors in semi-arid areas are confronted with highly variable and challenging climatic conditions. The objective of this study was to determine which larval habitat types are most productive in terms of larval densities in the dry and wet seasons within semi-arid environments, and how vector species productivity is partitioned over time.MethodsLarval habitats were mapped and larvae sampled longitudinally using standard dipping techniques. Larvae were identified to species level morphologically using taxonomic keys and to sub-species by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods. Physical characteristics of larval habitats, including water depth, turbidity, and presence of floating and emergent vegetation were recorded. Water depth was measured using a metal ruler. Turbidity, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, temperatures salinity and total dissolved solids (TDS) were measured in the field using the hand-held water chemistry meters.ResultsMean larval densities were higher in the dry season than during the wet season but the differences in density were not statistically significant (F = 0.04, df = 1, p = 0.8501). Significantly higher densities of larvae were collected in habitats that were shaded and holding turbid, temporary and still water. Presence of emergent or floating vegetation, habitat depth, habitat size and habitat distance to the nearest house did not significantly affect larval density in both villages. There was a weakly positive relationship between larval density and salinity (r = 0.19, p < 0.05), conductivity (r = 0.05, p = 0.45) and total dissolved solids (r = 0.17, p < 0.05). However, the relationship between water temperature and larval density was weakly negative (r = 0.15, p = 0.35). All statistical tests were significant at alpha = 0.05.ConclusionBreeding of malaria vector mosquitoes in Baringo is driven by predominantly human-made and permanent breeding sites in which Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles funestus breed at a low level throughout the year. Permanent water sources available during the dry season serve as inocula by providing "larval seed" to freshly formed rain-fed habitats during the rainy season. The highly localized and focal nature of breeding sites in these semi-desert environments provides a good opportunity for targeted larval control since the habitats are few, well-defined and easily traceable.

Human–wildlife conflicts in Monduli District, Tanzania

An assessment of land-use conflicts was conducted in three semi-arid villages within the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem that are important wildlife dispersal areas and migratory routes linking northeast Tanzania protected areas. Data were collected through household and extension staff interviews, archive data from village government offices and field visits. Conflicts varied across villages and were mainly boundary conflicts with Lake Manyara National Park (LMNP). They included crop destruction and livestock depredation by wild animals, land scarcity, loss of former Manyara Ranch land to Tanzania Lands Conservation Trust (TLCT), which has imposed grazing restrictions, and insufficient buffer zone. An analysis of gender conflicts varied across villages. Several mitigation measures are suggested by both local communities and field extension staff. These include realization of economic benefits from wildlife-related enterprises, relocation of people to low-density areas, implementation of compensation schemes for destruction made by wildlife, intensification of patrols, fencing of the park, need for land-use plans and need for villages to formulate their own natural resources management by-laws. The paper concludes with a series of recommendations.

Watershed externalities, shifting cropping patterns and groundwater depletion in Indian semi-arid villages: The effect of alternative water pricing policies

Frequent droughts and groundwater depletion are critical constraints to improving agricultural productivity in the semi-arid tropics. India has been promoting integrated watershed management in drought-prone areas to address these constraints. Watershed communities are being assisted to invest in groundwater re-charging facilities. While communities and the public bear such costs, individual farmers capture irrigation benefits. Groundwater is a free common property resource and land users hold de-facto use rights. This has accelerated private irrigation investments and depletion of aquifers resulting in iniquitous distribution of irrigation water. Power subsidies and negligible pumping costs aggravate the problem. These policy failures and low irrigation costs to farmers are displacing water-efficient crops in favor of water-intensive crops in water-scare areas. The paper reviews the village-level externalities that aggravate groundwater depletion and evaluates potential policy options to enhance local collective action in water management. Using 3SLS, an econometric crop-water productivity model is used to evaluate alternative water policy instruments. The results indicate that different types of water user charges can be introduced with modest consequences on profitability and farm incomes. If properly implemented and managed by the local communities, pro-poor policies could bring considerable sustainability benefits and also ensure enhanced equity in access to the resource.

Impacts of Wildlife on Household Food Security and Income in Northeastern Tanzania

We evaluated the impacts of wildlife on household food security and income in three semi-arid villages adjacent to Lake Manyara National Park (LMNP) and Mkomazi Game Reserve (MGR) in Northeastern Tanzania. Survey data were collected using both household interviews and human–wildlife conflict related archive information from the village government offices. Crop destruction by wildlife influenced both household food security and cash income. Crop damage to households was, on average, 0.08 ton/annum, equivalent to two months household loss of food and reduced household cash income by 1.3%. A combination of measures is proposed as incentives for conservation. These include provision of economic incentives, soft loans to initiate non-farm (e.g., ecotourism, business enterprises) projects to ease dependency on natural resources, increasing of reserves buffer zones and fencing of reserves.

Improved Seeding Strategies in Response to Variability in the Start of the Rainy Season in Mali, West Africa

Small-scale automatic weather monitoring stations were placed on fields of 14 farmers in a semi-arid zone village (Niessoumana) and 15 farmers in a semi-humid zone village (Diou) in Mali, West Africa. Data on the farmers' cropping practices were gathered weekly by interviews. In the semi-arid village, variation in precipitation during the seeding period 21 May-15 June was greater in 2001 and 2002 than in 2003, and the second of two seeding criteria (less than 7 days between 10 mm rains) was met earlier in 2003 (22 or 25 May) than 2001 (17 June) or 2002 (3 July). Farmers seeded upland crops later in 2002 (5 June-11 July) than 2001 (27 May-22 June) or 2003 (27 May-20 June). Reseeding rates for sorghum and millet seeded before the first seeding criteria (10 mm rainfall on one day) were 82% in 2001, but decreased to 44% in 2002 and 0% in 2003. In the semi-humid village, farmers seeded upland crops later, 20 June-30 July in 2001, 18 June-22 July in 2002, and 16 June-20 July in 2003. No millet or sorghum parcels were seeded before the first rainfall criterion date. Percentages of plots reseeded were 11-13% over the three years.

The status and use of tree biomass in a semi-arid village ecosystem

Abstract The status of the tree biomass resource was investigated in Ungra, a semi-arid village ecosystem in South India. There were 57 tree species with 12 trees capita −1 and 35 trees ha −1 . Multiple benefit yielding local tree species dominated the village ecosystem, while fuel only or single end use trees accounted for a small proportion of trees. The standing tree biomass is adequate to meet the requirement of biomass fuels for cooking only for about two years. Village tree biomass is presently being depleted largely for export to urban areas. Tree regeneration is now characterized by transformation from multiple-use local tree species to a few single-use species. A large potential exists for tree biomass production along field boundaries (bunds), stream banks and roadsides. Biomass estimation equations were developed for 10 species.

Migration, Remittances, and the Family

Remittances by migrants along with migration itself are elements in a migrant familys intertemporal contractual arrangement. The reasons why the migrant and his family voluntarily enter into a mutually beneficial contractual arrangement with each other rather than with a 3rd party--are discussed and the conditions under which the contractual arrangement is self-enforcing are identified. Both parties can usually benefit from a number of Pareto-efficient mutual contractual arrangements. This gives rise to an indeterminacy problem solved through a bargaining process between the parties who consequently converge to a contractual arrangement implying a specific flow of migrant-to-family remittances. The chosen contractual arrangement reflects the relative bargaining powers of the parties and variables impinging upon these powers thus bear upon remittances. In the light of these arguments tests are conducted on observed remittance behavior across individual migrants in Botswana. (authors)

On Migration and Risk in LDCs

The authors develop the hypothesis that aversion to risk rather than expectations of higher income is the primary motivation for rural-urban migration in developing countries. This hypothesis maintains that an optimizing risk-averse small-farmer family will try to place a family member in the urban sector in order to diversify its income portfolio. An additional hypothesis related to risk is also considered at the individual rather than the family level. (ANNOTATION)