Selous Game Reserve Research Articles

New record of strawberry leopard (Panthera pardus) in Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania.

Strawberry or red leopards are a rare colour morph of leopard (Panthera pardus) characterised by spot markings that are red or brown instead of black, thought to be a result of a mutation in the tyrosinase-related protein (TYRP1) gene. We report the first record of this phenotype on the African continent outside of South Africa, from Selous Game Reserve in southern Tanzania. One female leopard with strawberry colouration was documented out of 373 individual leopards (0.3%) identified through camera trap surveys conducted from 2020 to 2022 over a combined area of more than 4600 km2 in the Nyerere-Selous landscape.

Challenges of Tourism Business Partnerships in Wildlife Management Areas around Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania

This article analyses how tourism development in Tanzanians' Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) is structured based on the political-ecological factors governing African countries. The article seeks to ascertain the variables that have triggered conflicts among stakeholders in tourism business partnerships. A total of 133 household heads and 74 key informants were examined, utilising a semi-structured questionnaire and an interview guide, respectively, to gather data. The findings indicate that tourism business partnerships provide challenges to local community. Their participation in business is undermined in the WMAs due to the deprivation of the benefits from wildlife resources. It is therefore important to integrate specific community-based business strategies in the policies, which can facilitate the development of tourism and provide mutual help in Wildlife Management Areas in Tanzania.

Cheetahs in Tanzania's Selous–Nyerere ecosystem: lack of evidence for current persistence, and reflections on historical status

Abstract The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus has suffered considerable range contractions in recent decades. Despite the importance of up-to-date information on distribution to guide conservation, such information is lacking for large areas within the species’ remaining potential range. In Tanzania, the largest tract of potential cheetah habitat without such data is the Selous–Nyerere ecosystem. Although the cheetah is considered possibly extant in this landscape, the last confirmed sighting was in the late 1990s. During 2020–2022, we carried out sign-based (spoor) and camera-trap surveys across Selous Game Reserve and Nyerere National Park. We did not record any evidence of cheetah presence, and opportunistic enquiries with tourism operators and protected area management staff did not provide any evidence of current or recent presence. Our findings suggest that current cheetah presence is unlikely, and that Selous–Nyerere should not be treated as potential contemporary cheetah range. We discuss the possibility that Selous–Nyerere may have never hosted a resident cheetah population, and was either occasionally occupied by dispersers from other populations or represented the edge of populations that spanned areas now treated as corridors.

Human-Wildlife Interactions and Community Livelihoods

In developing nations, particularly in Africa, interactions between humans and animals (HWIs) are widespread as local populations heavily rely on natural resources such as forests, which serve as habitats for flora and fauna. This paper draws from a study which investigated human-wildlife interactions (HWIs) in four villages—Mvuha, Mbwade, Milengwelengwe, and Kisaki Gomero— surrounding the Selous Game Reserve (SGR). A mixed methods approach was adopted to aid data capturing from 312 households and 11 key informants. Spatial analysis was employed to depict land use and land cover changes around the SGR over time due to human influence. The results indicated that HWIs were influenced by changes in water and pasture availability caused by two elements of weather: temperature and rainfall. People in WMA-designated villages complained about the lack of employment and unfair distribution of benefits, whereby the main concern of non-WMA-designated villages was on the need for policy review, with emphasis on the holistic conservation approach. Nonetheless, bush lands have increased in recent decades at the expense of woodland due to the proliferation of human interference. The paper concludes that the intersection of community livelihoods and wildlife ecology was the most common HWI pattern observed. However, typical forms of interaction were often hostile and instigated human-wildlife conflicts.

Effects of prescribed burning on rodents in an East African woodland ecosystem

AbstractThe name “miombo” is a vernacular term for the forests in central, southern, and eastern Africa that are dominated by the closely related legume family genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia and/or Isoberlinia. Prescribed burning is a common management practice in most miombo woodland in protected areas that highly influences vegetation structure and composition which in turn influences small mammals' distribution and abundance. This practice if not checked might significantly affect the ecosystems. We investigated the effects of prescribed burning on rodent's ecology in the miombo woodland ecosystem in the Selous game reserve, Tanzania, between July 2018 and June 2020. A total of 473 individuals comprising six rodent species; Acomys ngurui (31.50%), Aethomys chrysophilus (28.96%), Mastomys natalensis (18.82%), Lemniscomys rosalia (14.16%), Mus minutoides (2.33%), Paraxerus flavovittis (0.85%) and two insectivorous shrew species; Petrodromus tetradactylus (3.17%) and Crocidura hitra (0.21%) were captured during 14,112 trap nights. There were no statistically significant differences in the abundance of A. ngurui between burnt and unburnt areas but its abundance was statistically significantly different between seasons. M. natalensis abundance was not statistically significantly different between burnt and unburnt areas or across seasons. The burnt sites had the highest species diversity than the unburnt in both wet and dry seasons. A. ngurui and M. natalensis survival and recruitment between burnt and unburnt sites were not statistically significantly different. The study shows that prescribed burning has an effect on specific species and demographic characteristics both positive and negative.

Flight Behavioural Responses for African Ungulates across Species and Vegetation Covers in a Trophy Hunting Ecosystem: A Case Study from Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania

Flight Behavioural Responses for African Ungulates across Species and Vegetation Covers in a Trophy Hunting Ecosystem: A Case Study from Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania

We are what we eat, plus some per mill: Using stable isotopes to estimate diet composition in Gyps vultures over space and time.

Dietary studies in birds of prey involve direct observation and examination of food remains at resting and nesting sites. Although these methods accurately identify diet in raptors, they are time‐consuming, resource‐intensive, and associated with biases from the feeding ecology of raptors like Gyps vultures. Our study set out to estimate diet composition in Gyps vultures informed by stable isotopes that provide a good representation of assimilated diet from local systems.We hypothesized that differences in Gyps vulture diet composition is a function of sampling location and that these vultures move between Serengeti National Park and Selous Game Reserve to forage. We also theorized that grazing ungulates are the principal items in Gyps vulture diet.Through combined linear and Bayesian modeling, diet derived from δ13C in Gyps vultures consisted of grazing herbivores across sites, with those in Serengeti National Park consuming higher proportions of grazing herbivores (>87%). δ13C differences in vulture feather subsets did not indicate shifts in vulture diet and combined with blood δ13C, vultures fed largely on grazers for ~159 days before they were sampled. Similarly, δ15N values indicated Gyps vultures fed largely on herbivores. δ34S ratios separated where vultures fed when the two sites were compared. δ34S variation in vultures across sites resulted from baseline differences in plant δ34S values, though it is not possible to match δ34S to specific locations.Our findings highlight the relevance of repeated sampling that considers tissues with varying isotopic turnover and emerging Bayesian techniques for dietary studies using stable isotopes. Findings also suggested limited vulture movement between the two local systems. However, more sampling coupled with environmental data is required to fully comprehend this observation and its implications to Gyps vulture ecology and conservation.

Endangered African Wild Dogs: Ecological Disturbances, Habitat Fragmentations, and Ecosystem Collapse in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) is among the species that have declined to the point where it is now listed as endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2012). Formerly, the African wild dog population was estimated to span 39 African countries, but today, they have disappeared from much of their former habitats, now occupying just 7% of their former geographic range. They are presently found in only 14 countries primarily in the southern part of the continent, including South Africa, Tanzania, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Botswana. The largest populations are presently found in northern Botswana, the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania, and in Kruger National Park in South Africa. In East Africa, the largest population is found in Tanzania and Kenya in the Serengeti-Maasai-Mara ecosystems and in the Selous Game Reserve. The current, global population is estimated to be between 3000-5000 which is comprised of less than 1400 mature individuals. Methodically, this study deeply underscored these data from critical library research i.e., archival sources, books and articles, and other published literatures across the globe which are pertinent to this research topic.

The Making of Contemporary Art in Tanzania

The Making of Contemporary Art in Tanzania

Will the Sustainability of Lion Tourist Hunting be Certain Amidst Noncompliance to Conservation Legal Frameworks?

This paper examined the understanding and compliance with the IUCN sustainability principles among hunting practitioners of the Selous Game Reserve (SGR) for sustainable trophy hunting. Five administrative sectors of the SGR to include Ilonga, Msolwa,Liwale, Miguruwe and Kingupira were purposively sampled for assessment between August and October 2018. It applied the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to understand predictors of compliance, and the unmatched count technique (UCT) to estimate prevalence of unsustainable hunting practices. UCT, semi-structured interviews, key informants interviews, direct field observations and Documentary review were used to collect data. Analysis of compliance was conducted using multiple logistic regression models in SAS Version 9.4 software. The findings indicated that, majority of the hunting practitioners are not familiar with IUCN hunting principles. Accordingly, nearly a half of the respondents did not comply with the principles. The predictors of compliance could be working experience (p=0.0079) and awareness with IUCN principles (p=0.0034) as they were significant in expressing positive attitude towards sustainable trophy hunting. The paper recommends; (1) much emphasis on the awareness rising and clear understanding of IUCN sustainability principles to the licensed hunting practitioners; (2) effective monitoring and evaluation of the hunting activities to reinforce compliance of sustainability principles.

Socioeconomic Factors Influencing Local Community Perceptions Towards Lion Conservation: A Case of the Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania

We assessed the factors influencing local community perceptions towards lions in the Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania. Data were collected from 384 households through questionnaire surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions, and analyzed by content analysis and IBM SPSS version 20. About 86% ( n=331) of respondents had negative perceptions towards lions. Education ( p=0.0016, R=1.68), occupation ( p=0.0021, R=−2.07), livestock numbers ( p=0.0011, R=0.-0.43), livestock management ( p=0.0006, R=0.373), water sources ( p=0.0019, R=−0.21), and distance from the protected area ( p=0.0183, R=2.11) were significant factors for community perceptions towards lions. We recommend compensation for the victims of lion attacks to reduce negative attitudes towards the species.

Faecal Glucocorticoids Metabolite Response in Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) in Relation to Protected Area Management Objectives in Tanzania

The increase in the human population and the demand for natural resources and recreational activities poses insurmountable threats to the welfare and survival of wildlife. Human disturbance negatively impacts wildlife populations. A prospective way of determining wildlife welfare is to assess stress. To manage and conserve giraffes, it is vital to understand their stress factors and their responses to stressors. This study used a non-invasive (faecal collection) technique to evaluate the Faecal Glucocorticoid Metabolite (FGM) levels of giraffes depending on the protected area type, poaching risk, group size, age and sex. The study took place at the Serengeti National Park and Selous Game Reserve where a total of 63 faecal samples were randomly collected from 272 giraffe groups. A significant difference in the FGM levels between the sexes was found, as females had higher concentrations compared to males. In addition, a significant difference was found in relation to group size and age; however, protection type and poaching risk did not have any significant effect. Stressful conditions when prolonged can result in deteriorating animal welfare especially in calves and young animals thus their survival. However, the level of impaired FGMs and the amount of time required to produce damage are not known. In this regard, conservation strategies should seek to minimize the occurrence of stressful events in protected areas.

In Danger

Considering the alarming results of an independent technical review of the project’s Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), the World Heritage Centre is expressing grave concern over the state of conservation of Tanzania’s Selous Game Reserve World Heritage site and the impacts of the Rufiji Hydropower Project on the property.

The Berlin curse in Tanzania:(re)making of the selous world heritage property

ABSTRACT Pervasive border-making processes continue to produce territories and new borders within independent African states. Yet, current African border scholarship does not pay enough attention to the ongoing colonial dominance in post-independence practices in sub-national borders. This paper examines both colonial and post-independence mechanisms that support the creation and governance of the Selous Game Reserve: a World Heritage Property of significant ecological and economic importance within Tanzania’s national jurisdiction. The paper draws attention to how past and present border processes depend on both top-down and bottom-up mechanisms. It argues that there are similarities between the way borders in Selous Game Reserve are being redrawn and colonial-style border making practices sanctioned at the Berlin conference. The case study of Selous Game Reserve challenges the current pre-occupation of African scholars and technocrats with state borders and their artificiality by highlighting the material impact of internal border-making processes. The paper calls for a critical analysis of sub-national borders in post-independence Africa, especially the ways in which internal and external forces produce them.

Lion Densities in Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania

Lion Densities in Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania

Impacts of Land Cover Change on Conservation, a Linkage of Spatial Analysis and Anthropogenic Activities in Tanzania

We used spatial analysis to assess the Land Use Land Cover (LULC) changes, and studied the impacts of LC changes on conservation of buffer zone of the Selous Game Reserve (SGR) and their implication on community’s livelihood in Vikumbulu Ward of Kisarawe District, Tanzania. Socio-economic data from Kisarawe District and TNBS were linked to spatial data to offer an integrated perspetive of LULC change in the Ward. Three cloud free image dates of 1998, 2011 and 2015 were analysed using System for Automated Geoscientific Analyses (SAGA) GIS for three categories of land cover, i.e. forest, wooded grassland and bare land/settlements/cultivation. Vikumbulu demographic and socio-economic data were linked to spatial data applying distance as a function of LULC change. Spatial analysis has shown a decreasing trend of forest and woodland cover in Vikumbulu Ward between 1998 and 2015. The sharp decline indicates increasing social economic activities such as shifting agriculture and charcoal burning as an outcome of population growth and poverty. Rapid conversion of forest cover to wooded grassland occurred between 1998 and 2015 in Vikumbulu Ward. However, loss of forest cover was associated with a decreasing trend in wooded land in the ward between 2011 and 2015. As there was only 0.15% area under crop cultivation in Vikumbulu until 2015, it is highly likely that LC change is caused by charcoal burning and shifting cultivation. This study suggests developing integrated strategies that target LULC change, conservation and people’s livelihoods to effectively improve the current situation in rural areas of Tanzania.

Predictors of elephant poaching in a wildlife crime hotspot: The Ruvuma landscape of southern Tanzania and northern Mozambique

Understanding the spatial distribution of elephant carcasses in relation to ecological characteristics and human activities is critical to developing targeted management strategies for reducing poaching. We employ a spatial modelling approach to quantify the relative contribution of multiple climatic, ecological, human and protected area management predictors of the number of elephant carcasses in a recognized poaching hotspot: the Ruvuma landscape of northern Mozambique and southern Tanzania. This includes the Niassa Reserve in the south and the Selous Game Reserve in the north. In Mozambique, the number of elephant carcasses is positively associated with State-managed protected areas such as Niassa Reserve, but particularly with environmental variables including low rainfall and high temperatures. In Tanzania, elephant carcasses are positively associated with community-managed sites. A strong focus on effective management of protected areas in the Ruvuma landscape is crucial to reducing the killing of elephants.

Tanzania needs up‐to‐date poaching data to help manage its wildlife populations

Across the tropical world, there is a dearth of data on poaching activity and its impact on different ecosystems; as a result, poaching receives little attention from conservation stakeholders (Lindsey et al., 2013). In Tanzania, for example, although data on elephants and rhinos have been released by researchers and NGOs, the majority of Tanzanians still know nothing about how poaching is threatening elephant and rhino populations (Wild Aid 2015). There is the slogan that ‘in every 15 min one elephant is killed’; this slogan has been used for some years, and it is time to bring it up-to-date data – what if now one elephant is poached every 5 min, or 1 h, or day or weeks? At the 10th Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI) Conference in 2015, several presenters pointed out that poaching in Tanzania is increasingly focusing on elephants and rhinos. The Director of the African Wildlife Foundation Arusha posed the question to all participants ‘to what extent has poaching increased in Tanzania?’ At the end of the conference none of the participants had responded to that question. I asked several participants why we have no poaching data from Tanzania, and most replied that the organizations that hold poaching data do not release them, even if asked. I have been looking for current poaching data in Tanzania and have found that most scientists focus on elephant or rhino poaching or poaching in specific areas, especially areas adjacent to protected areas. Other scientists have focused on illegal bushmeat hunting, also generally in areas adjacent to protected areas. Most scientists did not provide data, for example, on how many poachers were arrested and/or sentenced. Data related to poaching in Tanzania was only readily available on the Wildlife Division (WD) website (www.wildlife.go.tz), which includes data on poachers arrested, patrols conducted, ivory and rhino horns seized and wildlife cases prosecuted, including resolved and unresolved cases. Unfortunately, the data published on the WD website are from 2000 to 2010, and recent data on poaching in Tanzania are lacking. Current data on poaching are essential in order to understand what is happening in Tanzania and to help inform what can be done about it. For example, the Tanzanian government has invested a significant amount of resources to combat poaching, including employing law enforcement staff, buying patrol vehicles and allocating money for different anti-poaching activities (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) 2014; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2017). Poaching data would play a significant role in evaluating what has been achieved through these investments. Also, to increase motivation for those of us who work on the anti-poaching frontline, data on poaching are also essential. The data would tell us how well we are performing. Non-governmental organizations have been helping the country to combat poaching. For example, since December 2014, The Frankfurt Zoological Society has helped the Selous Game Reserve and the Serengeti National Park anti-poaching operations with resources such as aerial and ground patrols (MNRT, 2014; UNESCO, 2017). Providing current poaching data can help inform these stakeholders as to what has been achieved in combatting poaching. Also, current data, especially related to how many poachers have been arrested, the sentences given to poachers, the area in which the poachers were arrested, and which animals are highly poached would play a significant role in changing public attitudes toward poaching. The Tanzanian government, through its institutions such as the WD, the Tanzania Wildlife Management Authority (TAWA), the Tanzania National Parks Authority (TANAPA), Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA) and TAWIRI should compile and release current data on poaching. To organize and release this data in an efficient and transparent manner might be challenging, and therefore local, regional and international scientists, as well as conservation stakeholders, should give their assistance. Slobodian et al. (2016) analyzed wildlife-related court cases in the Tanzania mainland and the data are now openly available online at www.wildlex.org. Conservation practitioners in Tanzania would be very grateful if somebody can replicate the Slobodian et al. (2016) study and provide a database of poaching data for the whole of Tanzania. I am not discouraging area-specific data, but countrywide data are vital. The majority of Tanzanians are not aware that elephant and rhino populations are in decline (Wild Aid 2015), hence the data on poaching should be widely published both locally and internationally. I thank Thomas Hesselberg for reviewing this article before submission. I also appreciate the support from Elina Rantanen and the Editor Iain Gordon.

A tsetse Glossina pallidipes harbors the pathogenic trypanosomes circulating in Liwale district, Tanzania.

African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) is among several constraints hindering development of the livestock sector in Tanzania. A survey was conducted in Liwale district located in southern Tanzania in 2013 to determine the population density of Glossina species, distribution pattern and Trypanosome species infection rate in tsetse flies. A total of 200 flies were collected from the study area and three Glossina species were identified. The proportional abundance of all trapped flies was 90% (180) for Glossina pallidipes, 6% (12) for G. brevipalpis and 4% (8) for G. m. morsitans with apparent densities (fly/trap/day - FTD) of 0.44. Higher density of Glossina pallidipes was observed in villages closer to than those far from the Selous game reserve. Trypanosomes were detected and identified by microscopy and ITS1 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay on DNA purified from 200 flies. Glossina pallidipes was the only fly found infected by three Trypanosoma species, namely T. vivax (60%), T. simiae (10%) and T. brucei (30%) with an overall infection rate of 10% (20/200). A higher proportion of trypanosome infections were observed in female tsetse flies than in males. Results of this study show that G pallidipes is the major Glossina species harboring pathogenic trypanosomes in Liwale district and that the Selous game reserve is a potential reservoir of trypanosomes in terms of parasite abundance and species diversity.

APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS FOR ASSESSING LAND COVER RESOURCES VARIABILITY IN THE SELOUS GAME RESERVE, TANZANIA

Purpose: The study was conducted in Selous Game Reserve, with intention of developing GIS and Remote Sensing based wildlife management system in the protected area.Methodology: All habitats were digitised using ArcGIS9.3 in which five scenes of Landsat TM and ETM+ digital images were acquired during dry seasons of the year 2000 and 2010. Band 3 and 4 of the Landsat images were used for calculation of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) for determination of vegetation spatial distributionResults: The NDVI maps of year 2000 to 2010 revealed the vegetation density depletion from 0.72 (obtained in 0.46─0.72 value interval and covering 46.5% pixel area) in 2000 as compared to 0.56 ( found in 0.38─0.56 value interval and covering 8.04% pixel area) in 2010 NDVI maps.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: It was recommended that there was a necessity to integrate applications of remote sensing and GIS techniques for the assessment and monitoring of the natural land cover variability to detect fragmentation and loss of wildlife species.