Self-reported Parenting Behaviors Research Articles

Cascading Effects of the Family Check-Up on Mothers' and Fathers' Observed and Self-Reported Parenting and Young Adult Antisocial Behavior: a 12-Year Longitudinal Intervention Trial.

Over a 12-year period, this study examined the effects of the Family Check-Up preventive intervention model on both observed and self-reported parenting behaviors of mothers and fathers as well as how those parenting behaviors were associated with young adult antisocial behavior. Teachers identified 641 early adolescent youth from school settings to be at elevated risk for the development of externalizing behavior and/or substance use. These youth and their families were randomly assigned to the Family Check-Up intervention model (consisting of an adaptive, multi-tiered model of support, including a school-based family resource room, the Family Check-Up, and targeted follow-up services) or a control condition. Using an intent-to-treat approach, the Family Check-Up intervention model positively impacted mothers' observed parenting approximately 5years later in middle adolescence but was not associated with changes in fathers' observed or self-reported parenting. Mothers' observed adaptive parenting and fathers' self-reported adaptive parenting in middle adolescence were associated with lower risk for young adult antisocial behavior. The cascading effects of brief, family-focused interventions are discussed along with implications for the measurement of parenting in mothers and fathers in the context of preventive intervention trials.

Negative parenting and functions of relational aggression: The moderating roles of gender and physiological reactivity.

Dimensions of negative parenting, including permissive, authoritarian, and psychologically controlling parenting behaviors, are associated with children's engagement in relational aggression. However, some youth may be more strongly influenced by negative parenting than others, and effects may depend on whether aggression is proactive or reactive in function. In a community sample of 236 preadolescent children followed over 1 year, we examined whether children's skin conductance level reactivity (an index of "fight or flight" response) and gender moderated links between parents' self-reported negative parenting behaviors and increases in children's teacher-reported proactive and reactive relational aggression. Findings indicated that negative parenting predicted increases in proactive and reactive relational aggression, and, consistent with differential susceptibility theory, effects often emerged among highly reactive youth. Associations between negative parenting and proactive relational aggression emerged for boys but not girls. Results tentatively suggest that associations between parenting and aggression vary by the function of aggression, children's physiological reactivity to stress, and gender, although results should be interpreted with caution due to high levels of missing data. Implications for theory and intervention are discussed.

Measurement Invariance in the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire: Implications for Culturally Inclusive Parenting Research

Questions persist in the parenting literature regarding how best to define positive and negative parenting behaviors. Are there optimal parenting behaviors shared by mothers and fathers, or among different racial and ethnic groups? This study draws from a nationally representative sample of US parents of school-age children, testing aspects of measurement invariance in the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ) full and short forms. Our goal was to highlight psychometric approaches to enhancing cultural sensitivity and inclusivity in parenting research, by assessing whether self-reported parenting behaviors have similar conceptual structure across groups. Tests of measurement invariance revealed that the factor structure of the APQ was the same across parent gender, race, and ethnicity. While partial invariance was found in some instances, we did not find metric and scalar invariance in comparisons among these groups. We conclude with research- and practice-based implications, and provide recommendations for future measurement development and use.

Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS): Factorial Structure and Concurrent Validity.

Comprehensive family assessments in Child Protection Services should include instruments with suitable psychometric characteristics. The present study aims to provide initial evidence of the factorial structure and other psychometric properties of the Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS). Participants were 80 mother-child dyads with children aged 4-8 who received family support from Child Protection Services in Spain. Confirmatory factor analysis showed good fit for a four-factor solution (Praise, Questions, Clear commands and Negative talk) with 15 items. Inter-rater reliability indices were optimal. Evidence of concurrent validity found that DPICS factors were related to self-reported parenting and teacher-informed child behavior problems. This study provides preliminary evidence of the DPICS's psychometric properties for assessing mother-child interaction within Child Protection Services. Further research with larger samples of mother-child and father-child dyads is still needed to confirm the four-factor solution.

Technology-Assisted Parenting Interventions for Families Experiencing Social Disadvantage: a Meta-Analysis.

Technology-assisted interventions have been identified as a means to increase accessibility and enhance engagement of parenting programs. The current meta-analytic review examines the effectiveness of these interventions in families experiencing social disadvantage. A literature search was conducted spanning March 2007-June 2019. Nine studies met inclusion criteria (total of 864 participants) which included an evaluation of a parenting intervention for families with at least one of the following demographic challenges, low socioeconomic status, single parenthood, and/or young parenthood. Interventions (or a component of the intervention) were delivered by computer, cell phone, smartphone, and/or tablet. Data were organized into three categories: parental psychological well-being (e.g., self-esteem, social support), parenting (e.g., observed or self-reported parenting behavior), and child behavior (e.g., disruptive behavior). Effect sizes (Hedges' g) were calculated and moderators (i.e., contact with an interventionist, intervention length, publication year, % female parents, mean parent age, parental education, % minority, and child age) were examined through Q-statistics and meta-regression, as appropriate. Intervention showed a near-significant impact on parental psychological well-being (g = .35, p = .051). Furthermore, interventions that did not include direct contact with an interventionist showed no evidence of effectiveness (g = - .02); interventions that incorporated contact were significantly more effective (g = .68). In addition, intervention length moderated intervention effectiveness; shorter interventions yielded greater improvements in well-being, compared with longer interventions. Interventions were also associated with significant improvements in parenting (g = .38) and child behavior (g = .39). These findings provide support for the use of technology-assisted parenting interventions in populations experiencing social disadvantage.

The Early Parenting Attitudes Questionnaire: Measuring Intuitive Theories of Parenting and Child Development

Parenting behaviors and decisions play an important role in determining children’s early environment. Are these behaviors driven by an intuitive theory of parenting – a coherent set of beliefs about child development and parent-child relationships? In exploratory work, we asked adults on Amazon Mechanical Turk to endorse a set of propositions about parenting and conducted exploratory factor analyses of their responses. Three distinct factors appeared in responses: an Affection and Attachment factor, an Early Learning factor, and a Rules and Respect factor. In an iterative process, we created a scale of items with subscales designed to measure these factors, which we call the Early Parenting Attitudes Questionnaire (EPAQ). We next conducted two studies with groups of parents (on Mechanical Turk and from the membership of a local museum) to estimate the validity of the new scale. We asked whether agreement with each subscale varied based on demographic factors and whether intuitive theories predicted self-reported parenting behaviors. The EPAQ provides an instrument to assess attitudes about parenting and child development, facilitating investigation of and intervention on parenting behaviors.

Integrating an Adapted, Low-Intensity Program to Promote Early Childhood Development in Routine Health Visits in Rural India: A Feasibility Study.

More than 200 million children younger than the age of 5 years fail to reach their full developmental potential in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The purpose of this study was to describe the feasibility of integrating a brief program to promote early childhood development within a health care setting serving a predominantly rural population in India. We conducted a prospective, noncomparative, mixed-methods study. An adapted parent-directed program was administered to caregivers of 2- to 6-month-old children while waiting for their health care provider. Caregivers completed baseline and 4-week follow-up surveys. Thematic analyses and generalized equation estimates were used for analyses in the following feasibility indicators: acceptability, demand, implementation and practicality, and limited efficacy testing. Forty-seven caregivers were recruited; most were women (98%) and had equal to or less than 12 years of schooling (61%). Forty-six of 47 participants completed the follow-up at 1 month. Three administrators were trained to deliver the program over the course of 2 days. Caregivers perceived a need for the program and found the content and structure of the program useful. However, there were important suggestions for improvement, including greater visual content and dissemination to nonparental caregivers and fathers. Significant increases were seen on self-reported parenting behaviors regarding a child's caregiving environment. Our findings support the feasibility of integrating an adapted, low-intensity program in a primary care setting in India, but important adaptations and considerations will need to be addressed before effectiveness testing on a wider scale. We discussed implications for offering sustainable population-level interventions to promote early childhood development in LMICs.

Modification to a systematically braided parent-support curriculum: Results from a feasibility pilot.

There are a variety of parent-support programs designed to improve parenting and, thereby,the safety and well-being of children. Providers trained in multiple programs are likely to select components of interventions they feel will meet the needs of the families they serve leaving out aspects they deem unnecessary orredundant. In so doing, the fidelity of the evidence-based program is at risk. A potential solution is systematic braiding in which evidence-based programs are combined such that the fidelity to each original model and its implementation are maintained. Drawing on qualitative feedback from a prior iteration, this paper discusses results of a feasibility and acceptability pilot of a modified version of the systematically braided Parents as Teachers and SafeCare at Home (PATSCH) curriculum This modification removed a provider-perceived "redundant" portion from the original PATSCH curriculum. A pre-post design (N=18) was used to evaluate the efficacy of the modified curriculum. Significant improvements were seen in trained parent behaviors surrounding home safety and child health. There was also improvement in self-reported parenting behaviors, the portion of the braided curriculum removed, suggesting that the PAT curriculum adequately teaches these skills. Providers and parents were highly satisfied with themodified curriculum. If a curriculum is modified to reflect provider and parent preferences, then the potential for delivery without fidelity is minimized.

Development and cross-national validation of a revised version of the Berkeley Parenting Self-efficacy Scale

Parenting self-efficacy (PSE) pertains to parents’ judgments about their ability to complete important parenting tasks in a successful manner. Numerous studies have shown that parents with high PSE are more likely than those with low PSE to engage in positive parenting behaviors that in turn promote children’s development. However, previous measures assessing PSE with respect to specific tasks and activities have rarely been validated, particularly in cross-national contexts. To address these gaps, a revised version of the Berkeley Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale was developed to provide a psychometrically sound measure for assessing PSE among parents of young children. Confirmatory factor analysis conducted with data provided by 986 parents of children in preprimary and early primary school in the US and Japan indicated strong construct, metric, and scalar equivalence. The Berkeley Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale-Revised (BPSE-R) demonstrated good test–retest reliability and was significantly associated in both national samples with concurrent measures of parent well-being as well as self-reported parenting behavior. In Japan only, the BPSE-R was associated with teacher ratings of children’s school-related competence. These findings indicate that the BPSE-R is a reliable and valid measure of parenting self-efficacy for parents of young children in Japan and the United States.

Active Parenting Now and Active Parenting of Teens: An Evaluation of Two Neo-Adlerian Parenting Programs

This study assessed the effects of two popular parent education programs, Active Parenting Now and Active Parenting of Teens, on parent observation of their children's and teen's behavior, parent attitudes and beliefs, and parent behaviors. Results indicated that parents participating in Active Parenting Now courses exhibited a positive change in their own observation of their child's behavior, in their attitudes and beliefs about parenting, and in their own self-reported parenting behavior as compared to a control group of parents who had not yet taken the course. Parents taking the Active Parenting of Teens courses also exhibited a positive change in their own observations of teen behavior as well as their own parenting behavior as compared to a control group of parents who had not yet taken the course.

Parenting adolescents with ASD: A multimethod study.

A number of studies have concluded that parents of children with ASD experience high levels of parenting stress. However, little is known about their parenting behaviors. Especially parenting in adolescence remains under investigated, although this period is associated with additional challenges for both adolescents and their parents. In this study, 44 adolescents with ASD and a control group of 38 adolescents without ASD, aged 12-16 years old, participated together with their mother. We compared parenting behaviors between the two groups, based on observations of mother-child interactions and a questionnaire that was filled out by the mother. During the observation, mothers of adolescents with ASD showed more sensitivity and creativity, compared to the control group. In addition, the questionnaire responses indicated that mothers in the ASD group adapted the environment more by for example, establishing routines. Furthermore, this study investigated the role of parenting stress and ASD characteristics of the mother on parenting behavior. Parenting stress was associated with less self-reported positive parenting. Higher levels of ASD characteristics of the mother were related to more negativity and less sensitivity during the observation in both groups, and more self-reported harsh punishment and adapting the environment in the control group only.

The Influence of Race and Income on Community Mothers’ Acceptance of Child Management Methods

The consideration of diverse family factors on parents’ acceptance of behavioral parent training (BPT) components aids in the development and delivery of culturally sensitive parenting programs. Perceptions of acceptability are particularly important to investigate among low-income and racial-minority families, as they are less likely to engage in nonadapted BPT programs. Therefore, the current study examines the synergistic effects of race and income on mothers’ acceptance of five common child management methods relevant to BPT. The relationship between mothers’ acceptability ratings and self-reported parenting practices was also explored. Participants were 106 White and Black mothers from different income levels who completed measures related to the acceptability of response cost, positive reinforcement, time-out, spanking, and medication. The results indicated that mothers from varying backgrounds differed in their acceptance of child management methods, particularly with regard to corporal punishment. Additionally, a relationship was found between parents’ acceptability ratings and their self-reported parenting behavior. The findings support the consideration of parents’ perceptions of child discipline methods when recommending and delivering BPT programs to diverse parents.

Mothers’ Implicit and Explicit Attitudes and Attributions in Relation to Self-Reported Parenting Behavior

SYNOPSISObjective. Parenting behavior is presumed to be related to the thoughts about child behavior that parents report in a controlled and explicit manner and to more implicit parent cognitions that occur outside of conscious awareness and are less accessible to verbal report. Design. We examined mothers’ attitudes toward their children as correlates of self-reported parenting behavior. We used a combination of a self-report questionnaire and a reaction-time method (the Implicit Association Test) to assess explicit and implicit attitudes, respectively. We also assessed mothers’ implicit and explicit attributions for child misbehavior in relation to parenting, using a questionnaire measure of attributions completed under high-cognitive load (implicit attributions) or under low-cognitive load (explicit attributions). Mothers of 124, 6- to 10-year-olds (52% male) participated. Results. Attitudes assessed by self-report questionnaire and the Implicit Association Test were uniquely associated with negative parenting. The cognitive load manipulation moderated associations between attributions and parenting, such that child-blaming attributions were inversely associated with positive parenting only under conditions of high-cognitive load. Conclusions. Compared to traditional self-report questionnaires, methods such as the Implicit Association Test or cognitive load manipulations may more effectively assess implicit parent cognitions.

Effects of PMTO in Foster Families with Children with Behavior Problems: A Randomized Controlled Trial

The present randomized controlled trial examined the effectiveness of Parent Management Training Oregon for foster parents with foster children (aged 4–12) with severe externalizing behavior problems in long-term foster care arrangements. Foster children’s behavior problems are challenging for foster parents and increase the risk of placement breakdown. There is little evidence for the effectiveness of established interventions to improve child and parent functioning in foster families. The goal of Parent Management Training Oregon, a relatively long and intensive (6–9 months, with weekly sessions) parent management training, is to reduce children’s problem behavior through improvement of parenting practices. We specifically investigated whether Parent Management Training Oregon is effective to reduce foster parenting stress. A significant effect of Parent Management Training Oregon, compared to Care as Usual was expected on reduced parenting stress improved parenting practices, and on reduced child behavior problems. Multi-informant (foster mothers, foster fathers, and teachers) data were used from 86 foster families (46 Parent Management Training Oregon, 40 Care as Usual) using a pre-posttest design. Multilevel analyses based on the intention to treat principle (retention rate 73 %) showed that Parent Management Training Oregon, compared to Care as Usual, reduced general levels of parenting stress as well as child related stress and parent-related stress (small to medium effect sizes). The clinical significance of this effect was, however, limited. Compared to a decrease in the Care as Usual group, Parent Management Training Oregon helped foster mothers to maintain parental warmth (small effect size). There were no other effects of Parent Management Training Oregon on self-reported parenting behaviors. Child behavior problems were reduced in both conditions, indicating no additive effects of Parent Management Training Oregon to Care as Usual on child functioning. The potential implication of reduced foster parenting stress for placement stability is discussed.

Expressed Emotion in Mothers of School-Age Children: Relations to Maternal Maltreatment and Parenting Behavior

The five-minute speech sample is an indirect measure of familial emotional climate, measuring the degree of criticism and/or emotional over-involvement a parent displays while describing a child. Originally developed for parents of adult children with chronic mental illness, the five-minute speech sample has more recently been used among parents of younger children, with inconsistent results. The first aim was to investigate the five-minute speech sample as a measure of parenting perceptions for nonclinical youth by analyzing relations of criticism and emotional over-involvement with self-reported and observed measures of parenting behavior in a diverse community sample of mothers (N = 64) with school-age children (M age = 9.48). Self-reported emotion socialization behaviors and observed parenting practices were correlated with criticism and emotional over-involvement ratings. The second aim was to analyze criticism and emotional over-involvement as mediators in a relationship between a mother’s history of maltreatment and her parenting behaviors. Findings indicated that criticism and emotional over-involvement are related to observed and self-reported parenting behaviors, though emotional over-involvement appears to be an aspect of positive parenting in this youth sample. All subtypes of maltreatment were correlated with significantly less emotionally supportive behaviors, but not with more unsupportive behaviors. Higher levels of emotional over-involvement significantly mediated the relationship between a history of sexual abuse and supportive and unsupportive parenting practices.

The Comorbid and Individual Impacts of Maternal Depression and Substance Dependence on Parenting and Child Behavior Problems.

Maternal depression, substance dependence, and the comorbidity of these conditions are highly prevalent risk factors among families involved with Child Protective Services (CPS). Data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being I (NSCAW I) were analyzed to examine the influence of maternal substance dependence, depression, and comorbidity on parenting and child behavior over 36-months among children reported to CPS who remained in the home at all waves. Although neglect and child behavior problems were highest for mothers with comorbidity at baseline, mothers with substance dependence had the poorest self-reported parenting and child behavior problems over time. Results indicate a need for intensive targeted services to address the complex needs of CPS-involved mothers with substance dependence and their in-home children.

Exploring Parent Beliefs and Behavior: The Contribution of ADHD Symptomology Within Mothers and Fathers

Objective: To use a multi-method approach to examine the association of parental ADHD and gender with observed and self-reported parenting beliefs and behaviors. Method: Seventy-nine mother–father dyads completed measures of child behavior and impairment, parenting beliefs and behaviors, and self- and partner ratings of ADHD symptoms and functional impairment. Forty-five parents also completed structured parent–child interactions. Results: A hierarchical linear model suggests impairment in functional domains may be associated with negative emotions about parenting and less effective parenting strategies. For fathers, greater severity of partner-reported symptoms of ADHD may be associated with greater frequency of negative talk during parent–child interactions. Conclusion: Findings suggest that higher levels of parental ADHD symptoms and functional impairment may be associated with reported beliefs and behaviors related to parenting. Differences emerged among mothers’ and fathers’ use of parenting strategies when self- and other-report of ADHD symptoms and impairment were assessed.

Parents' perfectionism and its relation to child rearing behaviors

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between parents' perfectionism and self-reported parenting behaviors. The study included 786 parents (417 mothers and 369 fathers) of high school students. Results showed that parents' positive and negative perfectionism were differently related to specific forms of child rearing practices. Namely, positive perfectionism was positively, while negative perfectionism was negatively related to parental acceptance for both mothers and fathers. Mothers' and fathers' negative perfectionism was positively related to parental criticism and permissiveness. In addition, fathers' positive perfectionism was negatively associated with permissive child rearing practices. After controlling for background variables, parents' positive and negative perfectionism explained significant amounts of variance in all self-reported parenting dimensions for fathers and significantly accounted for the variance of parental acceptance and criticism for mothers. According to our findings, parents' perfectionism might have an important role in shaping parenting behaviors.

Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Parenting of Children From Birth to 12 Years

Maternal depression, especially in the early years of child development, affects parenting behaviors that have been repeatedly linked to poor outcomes in children. However, recurrent maternal depression may be a more potent predictor of parenting than depression that only occurs in the early years. Longitudinal population data were used to examine the influence of depression in the first 2 years postpartum alone or in combination with recurrent episodes of depression on self-reported parenting behaviors known to influence children's development. Growth curve hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine the relationships among depression in the early years, recurrent depression, and parenting during children's first 12 years of life. Findings revealed that 63% of the depressed mothers reported recurrent episodes of depression. Self-reported parenting behaviors characterized by positive forms of discipline, firmness, and consistency were related to recurrent episodes of depression, whereas warmth and nurturant parenting behaviors were unaffected by recurrent episodes.

Immediate and short‐term outcomes of the ‘COPEing with Toddler Behaviour’ parent group

Controlling, uninvolved, and rejecting parenting in early childhood are strong predictors of later disruptive behavior disorders. However, there have been no evaluations of non-targeted groups for parents of very young children, despite their potential advantages. We randomly assigned 79 mothers of 12- to 36-month-olds to an 8-session parent training program (called 'COPEing with Toddler Behaviour') or to a waiting list control condition. We investigated the immediate and short-term impact on parent-reported child behavior problems, observed parent-child interaction, and self-reported parenting behavior and parent functioning. In an intent-to-treat design, the program yielded significant effects on child behavior problems, positive parent-child interaction, and parental overreactivity and depression but not observed negative child behavior or parental laxness. Most effects were significant at both post-test and 1-month follow-up and effects sizes were small to medium for the intervention group and inverse to small for the control group. The potential of the program to prevent later behavior problems is supported by improvements in six of the eight outcomes. As part of a community strategy, groups such as COPEing with Toddler Behaviour may promote positive parent-child interaction and children's mental health.