Self-reported Negative Emotion Research Articles

A virtual reality-based self-guided training on identification of negative automatic thoughts in healthy adults: a mixed-methods feasibility study

BackgroundCognitive restructuring (CR) is an evidence-based psychological technique for depression. However, face-to-face CR is not easily accessible. Digital CR interventions often overlook the difficulties individuals experiencing depression encounter in identifying their negative automatic thoughts (NAT), leading to suboptimal outcomes. Virtual Reality (VR) has potential advantages in assisting the identification of NAT in CR intervention.ObjectiveThe aim of this preliminary feasibility study is to assess the efficacy, acceptability and safety of a VR-based self-guided training on the identification of negative automatic thoughts (VR-STINAT) for depression, as well as to evaluate the user experience.MethodsIn a mixed methods study, 20 healthy participants underwent VR-STINAT and completed a semi-structured interview, followed by post-training homework. The VR-STINAT includes three modules: psychological education, NAT identification training in VR scenarios, and practice in personally experienced scenarios. Effectiveness was measured via Thought Record Skills Assessment (TRSA) of homework and Cognitive Therapy Awareness Scale (CTAS). Acceptability was measured using an adapted Technology Acceptance Model and duration of training. Safety was measured via Simulator Sickness Questionnaire and self-reported negative emotions. Qualitative material was analyzed using thematic analysis.ResultsThe VR-STINAT was acceptable, with an average rating of 80.68%. The accuracy of NAT identification in TRSA reached 84.55%, and CTAS correctness reached 76.67%. The majority of participants experienced minimal or no side effects, although a few (10%, 2/20) reported relatively severe fatigue and craniofacial pain. Thematic analysis reviewed four themes: effectiveness, acceptability, advantages of VR, difficulties in use and suggestions for improvement. Most participants indicated that they’ve learned how to identify their NAT through VR-STINAT (85%, 17/20), which was engaging (90%, 18/20) and easy to use (60%, 12/20).ConclusionThis study provides preliminary evidence that self-guided training for the identification of negative automatic thoughts related to depression using VR is feasible. Future studies are needed to compare the efficacy of VR with other intervention modalities in people with depression.

Negative emotionality and coping in forensic outpatients with sexually transgressive behaviour

ABSTRACT Negative emotionality has been consistently linked to an increased risk of sexual offending. Ninety-one Dutch males treated in outpatient forensic psychiatry for sexually transgressive behaviour were studied on self-reported negative emotionality, coping and sexual coping, and therapist assessed corresponding dynamic risk factors. Outpatients reported more prevalence of high negative emotionality than therapists. Correlation analyses showed, amongst others, a significant positive association between emotional coping and all subscales of negative emotionality: stress (strong), aggression (weak) and alienation (weak). Furthermore, regression analyses revealed that self-reported stress was a significant predictor of several types of self-reported coping (task, emotional, avoidant, and sexual consent and molest) and assessed sexual coping. Additionally, self-reported aggression predicted consent and rape-themed sexual coping. These results indicate a nuanced relationship between different aspects of negative emotionality and coping mechanisms, underscoring the relevance of careful consideration tailored to characteristics of the patient involved when addressed in forensic treatment. PRACTICE IMPACT STATEMENT The observed associations between (aspects of) negative emotionality and coping, promote the use of patient-tailored emotion regulation interventions in the forensic treatment of outpatients with sexually transgressive behaviour. Moreover, self-report appears to provide useful additional information for further tailoring therapy.

Framing fact-checks as a “confirmation” increases engagement with corrections of misinformation: a four-country study

Previous research has extensively investigated why users spread misinformation online, while less attention has been given to the motivations behind sharing fact-checks. This article reports a four-country survey experiment assessing the influence of confirmation and refutation frames on engagement with online fact-checks. Respondents randomly received semantically identical content, either affirming accurate information (“It is TRUE that p”) or refuting misinformation (“It is FALSE that not p”). Despite semantic equivalence, confirmation frames elicit higher engagement rates than refutation frames. Additionally, confirmation frames reduce self-reported negative emotions related to polarization. These findings are crucial for designing policy interventions aiming to amplify fact-check exposure and reduce affective polarization, particularly in critical areas such as health-related misinformation and harmful speech.

Dispersing attentional resources reduces negative emotions.

Research shows that human attentional focus expands under positive emotions and narrows under negative emotions. Moreover, expanding (or contracting) the attentional focus is associated with dispersing (or concentrating) attentional resources. This study investigated whether dispersing or concentrating attentional resources on a target stimulus can change negative emotions to positive ones. We used the flanker task to manipulate the attentional resource allocation range by displaying a peripheral, task-unrelated induction stimulus far from the target stimulus or a central, task-unrelated induction stimulus near the target stimulus. The attentional resources allocated to the target stimulus were measured by recording the P300 component, an event-related potential indicating attention allocation. We also presented negative images before and after the task and used the Self-Assessment Manikin and the Affect Grid to assess the negative emotions induced by the images. The P300 amplitudes for the target stimuli were smaller in the peripheral than in the central condition. Moreover, self-reported negative emotions in the peripheral condition decreased after the task but did not change in the central condition. The dispersion of attentional resources changes negative emotions into a positive orientation.

The role of strategy-use and parasympathetic functioning in maternal emotion regulation.

Research has recognized that parental emotion regulation influences whether parents respond sensitively to their children in challenging parenting situations. However, parental emotion regulation is usually assessed using questionnaires that are not about parenting, rather than through examining parents' reaction to specific parenting situations that might evoke negative emotions. This study investigates individual differences in mothers' emotion regulation during parenting, specifically examining the relation between their subjective negative emotions and observed parenting behaviors and whether this relation is moderated by cognitive (strategies to manage negative emotions) and physiological (resting baseline and reactivity of respiratory sinus arrhythmia; RSA) processes. Data of 157 mothers' self-reported negative emotions and strategy-use, their RSA, observed maternal responsiveness, and their preschool-age children's (30-60 months, 49.7% female) challenging behaviors were collected during a Wait Task, in which mothers told children to wait before opening an appealing gift. Regression analysis indicated that, after controlling for how challenging children were, mothers' level of negative emotion was not associated with observed level of maternal responsiveness. In line with hypotheses, the association was moderated by mothers' resting RSA and the extent to which they suppressed negative emotions. However, contrary to hypotheses, the association was not moderated by use of reappraisal, distraction, or rumination, or RSA reactivity. The significant findings suggest that, although mothers' subjective experiences of negative emotions are not necessarily related to less responsive parenting behaviors, the link between maternal emotions and parenting behavior may indicate differences in how mothers engage cognitive strategies as well as their physiological regulation capacity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Evil joy is hard to share: Negative affect attenuates interpersonal capitalizing on immoral deeds.

Capitalization is an interpersonal process in which individuals (capitalizers) communicate their accomplishments to others (responders). When these attempts to capitalize are met with enthusiastic responses, individuals reap greater personal and social benefits from the accomplishment. This research integrated the interpersonal model of capitalization with moral foundations theory to examine whether accomplishments achieved through immoral (vs. moral) means disrupt the interpersonal processes of capitalization. We hypothesized that an accomplishment achieved through immoral (vs. moral) means would suppress the positive affective response often reaped from capitalizing on good news. We conducted two, mixed-methods experiments in which individuals interacted with a stranger (Study 1) or with their romantic partner (Study 2). We found that responders exhibited greater self-reported negative emotions, avoidance motivation, and arousal when reacting to capitalizers' immoral (vs. moral) accomplishments. In turn, greater negative affect predicted less enthusiastic verbal responses to capitalization attempts. In Study 2 we found that immoral accomplishments increased avoidance motivation, which contrary to our expectations, increased expressions of happiness. These studies reveal that the moral means by which accomplishments are achieved can disrupt the interpersonal process of capitalization. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

A Construct Validity Study for the Union Intolerance Scale: Convergent-Discriminant Validity and Concurrent Criterion-Related Validity

Stemming from union intolerance as a psychological construct, defined as sustained hatred by nonunion employees when unions are perceived to encourage intolerable vices in employees and, notably, in union employees, we sought to broaden the empirical basis to claim scale validity for the union intolerance scale. In doing so, we targeted two forms of construct validity: convergent-discriminant validity and concurrent criterion-related validity. Based on survey data drawn from a sample of American nonunion employees (N = 162), we found supportive correlational evidence for both forms. In reference to convergent validity, the scores yielded by the intolerance scale showed expected convergence with the scores yielded by measures of general intolerance of stigmatized groups and union reliance. In reference to discriminant validity, the scores yielded by the intolerance scale showed expected divergence with the scores yielded by a measure of self-reported negative social emotions linked to vices. As for concurrent validity, the scores yielded by the intolerance scale were associated with the scores yielded by a measure of support for the Protecting the Right to Organize Act (the PRO Act), a proposed labor law passed by the U.S. House of Representatives, in which employees indicated whether they will or will not urge their two State Senators to cast a vote in favor of the Act when it is brought to the floor of the U.S. Senate. Included are discussion points about why the scale can be suggested as valid and how scale validity can be extended.

Self-monitoring of psychological stress-induced blood pressure in daily life using a wearable watch-type oscillometric device in working individuals with hypertension

This study investigated psychological stress-induced blood pressure (BP) elevation according to self-measured data obtained by a wearable watch-type oscillometric device for multiple days in 50 working hypertension patients (mean ± SD age: 60.5 ± 8.9 years; 92.0% men; 96% treated for hypertension). Participants were asked to self-measure their BPs at five predetermined times as well as at any additional time points at their own discretion under ambulatory conditions for a maximum of 7 days. At the time of each BP measurement, participants self-reported their location, emotion, and degree of stress. A total of 1220 BP readings with self-reported situational information were obtained from 50 participants over 5.5 ± 1.2 days. Systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) measured during moments of self-reported negative emotions (i.e., anger, tension, anxiety, or sadness) were significantly higher (5.0 ± 1.3 and 2.0 ± 0.8 mmHg, both p < 0.05) than those during moments of self-reported positive emotions (i.e., happiness or calm). SBP/DBP were significantly increased under a moderate or high degree of stress by [4.5 ± 1.1]/[2.5 ± 0.7] and [10.2 ± 3.0]/[4.7 ± 1.8] mmHg, respectively. As a result, it was estimated that SBP/DBP increased 15.2/8.5 mmHg in the presence of highly stressful negative emotions. In conclusion, self-measurement of BP monitoring with a wearable device for multiple days is a feasible method to detect daily stress-induced BP elevation in working adults.

School-aged children with higher anxiety symptoms show greater correspondence between subjective negative emotions and autonomic arousal

Individuals exhibit variability in the degree of correspondence between autonomic and subjective indicators of emotional experience. The current study examined whether convergence between autonomic arousal and negative emotions during emotion-inducing story vignettes is associated with internalizing symptoms in school-aged children. A diverse sample of 97 children aged 8 to 12 years participated in this study in which they reported on their anxiety and depression. Children’s electrodermal activity was assessed while they read vignettes depicting children experiencing sadness and fear. Participants also reported on their emotional reaction to the vignettes. Children’s anxiety and electrodermal activity to fear vignettes were associated only at high levels, but not mean or low levels, of self-reported negative emotions to fear vignettes. These findings suggest that hyperawareness, in which self-reported negative emotionality is high when physiological reactivity is also high, is associated with greater risk for anxiety, but not depression, during middle childhood.

The who and what of validation: an experimental examination of validation and invalidation of specific emotions and the moderating effect of emotion dysregulation

BackgroundTheory and research indicate that validation is associated with reductions in negative emotions, whereas invalidation is associated with escalation of negative emotions. However, it remains unclear whether these effects are consistent across emotions, and/or moderated by an individual’s levels of emotion dysregulation. The present study experimentally examines the effects of validation and invalidation across emotions and as moderated by emotion dysregulation.MethodsOne hundred twenty-six participants completed a measure of emotion dysregulation, and then listened to a rejection-themed imagery script after which they reported the intensity of several emotions. Participants were then presented with either validating or invalidating feedback about their most intense self-reported emotion, depending on their counterbalancing order. They then repeated the procedure for the other condition. Self-reported negative emotions via continuous rating dial, heart rate (HR), and skin conductance level (SCL) were monitored throughout.ResultsHigher emotion dysregulation was associated with greater increases in self-reported positive emotion when shame or sadness was validated and lesser increases when fear was validated. There were no significant moderating effects of emotion dysregulation in response to invalidation for any emotion on any index.ConclusionsThe effects of validation appear emotion specific and dependent on levels of emotion dysregulation. These findings may help inform more strategic use of validation in psychotherapeutic interventions.

Comparing self-reported emotions and facial expressions of joy in heterosexual romantic couples

To better understand individual differences in the expression of emotion within intimate relationships, we evaluated and compared patterns in facial expressions of joy against patterns in self-reported expressions of emotions in romantic couples. Using conversational data from 44 heterosexual romantic couples discussing four different topics, we examined the impact of stress on emotion expression, similarity in emotion expression between partners, and the influence of one partner's facial expressions on the self-reported expressions of the other partner. Overall, we found large differences between patterns in facial expressions of joy and patterns in self-reported emotions. First, using social relations analysis and generalizability analysis, we found that self-reported positive and negative emotions changed between stressful and non-stressful conversational topics, whereas facial expressions of joy remained stable. Second, we found similarities between romantic partners were common for self-reported positive emotions, less common for self-reported negative emotions, and uncommon for facial expressions. Finally, using Actor-Partner Interdependence Models, we found facial expressions of joy were unrelated to self-reported positive and negative emotions, and were non-significant predictors of partner's self-reported emotions. Our results challenge the use of only one methodology when measuring emotional experiences, as patterns observed for self-reported emotional data and facial expression data were not the same.

Evaluation of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy vs Mindfulness Meditation in Brain Changes During Reappraisal and Acceptance Among Patients With Social Anxiety Disorder

Cognitive behavioral group therapy (CBGT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) are thought to help patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD) via distinct emotion-regulation mechanisms. However, no study has compared the effects of CBGT and MBSR on brain and negative emotion indicators of cognitive reappraisal and acceptance in patients with SAD. To investigate the effects of CBGT and MBSR on reappraisal and acceptance in patients with SAD and to test whether treatment-associated brain changes are associated with social anxiety symptoms 1 year posttreatment. In this randomized clinical trial, a total of 108 unmedicated adults diagnosed with generalized SAD were randomly assigned to 12 weeks of CBGT, MBSR, or waitlist. The final sample included 31 patients receiving CBGT, 32 patients receiving MBSR, and 32 waitlist patients. Data were collected at the psychology department at Stanford University from September 2012 to December 2014. Data were analyzed from February 2019 to December 2020. CBGT and MBSR. Changes in self-reported negative emotion and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal within an a priori-defined brain search region mask derived from a meta-analysis of cognitive reappraisal and attention regulation 1 year posttreatment. Of 108 participants, 60 (56%) were female. The mean (SD) age was 32.7 (8.0) years. Self-reported race and ethnicity data were collected to inform the generalizability of the study to the wider population and to satisfy the requirements of the National Institutes of Health. From the categories provided by the National Institutes of Health, 47 participants selected White (43.5%), 42 selected Asian (38.9%) 10 selected Latinx (9.3%), 1 selected Black (1%), 1 selected Native American (1%), and 7 selected more than 1 race (6.5%). CBGT and MBSR were associated with a significant decrease in negative emotion (partial η2 range, 0.38 to 0.53) with no significant between-group differences when reacting (β, -0.04; SE, 0.09; 95% CI, -0.11 to 0.08; t92 = -0.37; P = .71), reappraising (β, -0.15; SE, 0.09; 95% CI, -0.32 to 0.03; t92 = -1.67; P = .10), or accepting (β, -0.05; SE, 0.08; 95% CI, -0.20 to 0.11; t92 = -0.59; P = .56). There was a significant increase in BOLD percentage signal change in cognitive and attention-regulation regions when reappraising (CBGT = 0.031; MBSR = 0.037) and accepting (CBGT = 0.012; MBSR = 0.077) negative self-beliefs. CBGT and MBSR did not differ in decreased negative emotion and increased reappraisal and acceptance BOLD responses. Reappraisal-associated MBSR (vs CBGT) negative emotions and CBGT (vs MBSR) brain responses were associated with social anxiety symptoms 1 year posttreatment. The results of this study suggest that CBGT and MBSR may be effective treatments with long-term benefits for patients with SAD that recruit cognitive and attention-regulation brain networks. Despite contrasting models of therapeutic change, CBT and MBSR may both enhance reappraisal and acceptance emotion regulation strategies. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02036658.

Relating whole-brain functional connectivity to self-reported negative emotion in a large sample of young adults using group regularized canonical correlation analysis

The goal of our study was to use functional connectivity to map brain function to self-reports of negative emotion. In a large dataset of healthy individuals derived from the Human Connectome Project (N = 652), first we quantified functional connectivity during a negative face-matching task to isolate patterns induced by emotional stimuli. Then, we did the same in a complementary task-free resting state condition. To identify the relationship between functional connectivity in these two conditions and self-reports of negative emotion, we introduce group regularized canonical correlation analysis (GRCCA), a novel algorithm extending canonical correlations analysis to model the shared common properties of functional connectivity within established brain networks. To minimize overfitting, we optimized the regularization parameters of GRCCA using cross-validation and tested the significance of our results in a held-out portion of the data set using permutations.GRCCA consistently outperformed plain regularized canonical correlation analysis. The only canonical correlation that generalized to the held-out test set was based on resting state data (r = 0.175, permutation test p = 0.021). This canonical correlation loaded primarily on Anger-aggression. It showed high loadings in the cingulate, orbitofrontal, superior parietal, auditory and visual cortices, as well as in the insula. Subcortically, we observed high loadings in the globus pallidus. Regarding brain networks, it loaded primarily on the primary visual, orbito-affective and ventral multimodal networks.Here, we present the first neuroimaging application of GRCCA, a novel algorithm for regularized canonical correlation analyses that takes into account grouping of the variables during the regularization scheme. Using GRCCA, we demonstrate that functional connections involving the visual, orbito-affective and multimodal networks are promising targets for investigating functional correlates of subjective anger and aggression. Crucially, our approach and findings also highlight the need of cross-validation, regularization and testing on held out data for correlational neuroimaging studies to avoid inflated effects.

A person-centered evaluation of subjective well-being using a latent profile analysis: Associations with negative life events, distress, and emotion regulation strategies.

The present study examined the structure of subjective well-being (SWB) using a person-centered approach, and tested whether SWB profiles differed in a number of self-reported negative life events, emotional distress, and cognitive emotion regulation strategies. The sample included a total of 945 undergraduate students from Serbia (78% female, Mage =20.14 years). A 3-step latent profile analysis with partial conditional independence revealed four profiles, which have been tentatively labeled: low SWB (a combination of low life satisfaction, low positive affect, and high negative affect), mixed SWB (moderate to high life satisfaction, moderate to low positive affect, high negative affect), moderately low SWB (low life satisfaction, moderate to low positive affect, moderate negative affect), high SWB (high life satisfaction, high positive affect, low negative affect). A comparison of SWB profiles applied to symptoms of emotional distress, along with the number of self-reported negative life events and emotion regulation strategies, offered support to the validity of four SWB profiles. Our findings suggest that a person-centered perspective might be a valuable tool for understanding the structure of SWB.

A Longitudinal Mediation Model of Negative Emotionality, Coping Motives and Drinking Intensity Among Individuals Receiving Community Treatment for Alcohol Use Disorder.

Negative emotionality is a key domain in frameworks measuring heterogeneity in alcohol use disorder (AUD), such as the Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment (ANA). Recent research has examined the construct validity of the ANA negative emotionality domain, but has not examined whether this domain demonstrates predictive validity for drinking outcomes. In this study, we examined the association between self-reported negative emotionality at baseline and drinking intensity 1 year following AUD treatment initiation. We also assessed whether coping motives for alcohol use at 6months following treatment initiation and changes in coping motives mediated this association. This was a secondary data analysis of a multisite prospective study of individuals entering AUD treatment (n=263; 61.6% male; mean age=33.8). Measures of coping motives and drinking intensity captured those who experienced a lapse to drinking. The associations between the ANA negative emotionality domain, coping motives and drinking intensity over time were assessed using a latent growth curve mediation model. The ANA negative emotionality domain at baseline was indirectly associated with greater 7-12-month drinking intensity through higher coping motives at 6 months. Negative emotionality was not related to change in coping motives over the assessment period and change in coping motives was not related to 7-12-month drinking intensity. This analysis provides evidence for the predictive validity of the ANA negative emotionality domain for coping motives and drinking intensity among treatment seekers who experienced a lapse to drinking. Coping motives may be an important target in AUD treatment among those high in negative emotionality.

No evidence that self-rated negative emotion boosts visual working memory precision.

Emotion is assumed to change how people process information by modulating attentional focus. Two recent studies (Spachtholz et al., 2014; Xie & Zhang, 2016) reported that self-reported negative emotion boosted the precision with which information was stored in visual working memory. Here we attempted and failed to replicate these findings across seven studies conducted in four countries. Emotion was induced by presenting emotional images (negative, neutral, and positive) before each trial of a visual working memory task (six experiments) or the images were combined with emotional music during a 3-min induction phase (one experiment) occurring prior to the memory task. In the visual working memory task, participants stored (emotionally neutral) continuously varying colored dots or oriented triangles. At test, the color or orientation of a probed item was reproduced. Although participants reported changes in their emotional state commensurate with the manipulations, six experiments showed substantial evidence against changes in visual working memory precision (and quantity) under negative (and positive) emotion in comparison with neutral, whereas one condition, in one study, showed increased precision under both negative and positive emotion compared with neutral. These results challenge the view that emotion modulates visual working memory quality and quantity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of Therapeutic Intervention on Parentally Bereaved Children's Emotion Reactivity and Regulation 15Years Later.

The Family Bereavement Program (FBP) is a family-based intervention for parentally bereaved children and surviving caregivers. Results are reported of a randomized controlled trial, examining intervention effects on emotional reactivity and regulation of young adults who participated in the program 15years earlier. Participants (N = 152) completed four emotion challenge tasks: reactivity to negative images, detached reappraisal while viewing negative images, positive reappraisal while viewing negative images, and reengagement with positive images. Outcomes included cardiac interbeat interval (IBI), pre-ejection period (PEP), and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) as well as self-reported emotional experience and regulation effectiveness. Direct intervention effects and effects mediated through improved parenting were estimated. Several significant effects were observed in primary analyses; however, none remained significant after correction for familywise Type I error. Parentingmediated FBP effects on IBI during negative reactivity (b = 15.04), and on RSA during positive reengagement (b = 0.35); the latter effect was accounted for by changes in breathing. Intervention condition was a direct predictor of self-reported detached reappraisal effectiveness (b = 1.00). Intervention and gender interacted in predicting self-reported negative emotion during the negative reactivity (b = 1.04) and positive reappraisal tasks (b = 1.31) such that intervention-conditionmen reported more negative emotions during those tasks. Although these findings should be considered preliminary given the limited power of the corrected statistical tests, they suggest long-term effects of family intervention following the death of a parent on offspring's emotional reactivity and regulation ability that should be pursued further in future research.

Executive control under stress: Relation to reappraisal ability and depressive symptoms

Depression is characterized by difficulties regulating emotions, which may result from executive control impairment. For some individuals, stress exposure leads to executive control impairment. The current study examined whether executive control measured under conditions of acute stress is associated with reappraisal ability and prospectively predicts symptoms of depression during a stressful time of life. Sixty-six participants completed either a laboratory stress induction or a control task. Executive control was measured before and after the stress induction or control task. Reappraisal ability was measured by self-reported negative emotion while viewing aversive images. Participants reported depressive symptoms at baseline and during a period of life stress. Lower levels of executive control under stress were associated with reduced reappraisal ability. Lower levels of executive control under stress also prospectively predicted higher depressive symptoms. Finally, reduced reappraisal ability prospectively predicted higher depressive symptoms. Findings suggest that level of executive control when under stress may contribute to reappraisal ability and symptoms of depression during a time of life stress.

Differentiating anxiety from fear: an experimental-pharmacological approach.

Gray's theory of personality postulates that fear and anxiety are distinct emotional systems with only the latter being sensitive to anxiolytic drugs. His work was mainly based on animal research, and translational studies validating his theory are scarce. Previous work in humans showed an influence of the benzodiazepine lorazepam on both systems, however, dependent on dosage (1 and 2 mg) and personality differences in negative emotionality. The present study aims to replicate these findings, and in addition tests the drug threshold effect by introducing a lower dosage of 0.5 mg lorazepam. Fifty healthy adults (23 males, agemean 22.40, SD ± 3.68) participated in an experimental threat-avoidance paradigm designed to dissociate risk assessment intensity (RAI, reflecting anxiety) and flight intensity (FI, reflecting fear) and completed two self-report questionnaires assessing facets of negative emotionality (Spielberger State Trait Anxiety Inventory and Fear Survey Schedule). In a randomized placebo-controlled within-subjects design, 0.5 and 1 mg of lorazepam were applied per os. Saccadic peak velocity was assessed by means of eye-tracking in order to control for sedating drug effects. Results showed the expected and specific anxiolytic effect of lorazepam on RAI, however, only in the 0.5 mg condition. FI was not influenced by lorazepam, and previous findings of interaction effects of lorazepam with self-reported negative emotionality could not be corroborated. Overall, this study demonstrates anxiolytic effects of lorazepam in dosages ≤1 mg in the absence of a drug effect on fear using a translational behavioural task. However, a putative moderating role of personality on defensive behaviour has to be clarified in future research.

Are there educational and psychological benefits from private supplementary tutoring in Mainland China? Evidence from the China Education Panel Survey, 2013–15

We investigate the educational and psychological benefits from participating in private supplementary tutoring in Mainland China. We use the 2013–2015 China Education Panel Survey data on junior high school students and a difference-in-difference and propensity score matching research design. Our results show that private tutoring is positively associated with higher English scores for rural students only. For all students and across most sub-groups, we find that private tutoring is associated with lower frequency of students' self-reported negative emotions. The data, however, do not permit deeper inquiry into the role of the quality and quantity of private tutoring.