Self-perceived Gender Typicality Research Articles

Associations Between Peer-Perceived and Self-Perceived Gender Typicality and Peer Status in Early Adolescence

Gender-typical characteristics are associated with popularity and acceptance, suggesting that gender typicality is an important component of how adolescents are perceived by peers. The current study addressed the contributions of self- and peer-perceived gender typicality in predicting popularity and liking among same- and other-sex peers. Participants were 131 7th and 8th graders from a rural, midwestern school. Same- and other-sex peer status were measured via peer nominations; gender typicality was measured via both peer nominations and self-report. Hierarchical regressions showed that self-perceived gender typicality was negatively associated with popularity among other-sex peers, and it was not closely tied to liking by same- or other-sex peers. Peer-perceived gender typicality was positively associated with liking by same-sex peers, and strongly associated with popularity among both same- and other-sex peers. The findings also suggest that gender typicality plays a more significant role in reputational, power-based status than it does for being liked.

Encouraging Gender Conformity or Sanctioning Nonconformity? Felt Pressure from Parents, Peers, and the Self.

Expectations regarding gendered behaviors are understood to emanate from many sources, including parents, peers, and the self but there has been little research directly comparing these three sources of pressure. The present study assessed felt pressure regarding masculine and feminine stereotypic behaviors and compared pressure from parents, peers, and the self and how these sources are associated with self-perceived gender typicality. Participants (N = 275; 53.09% female; grade 7 M = 12.35 years; grade 9 M = 14.3 years; 71% Anglo-Celtic) were recruited from independent schools in Sydney. Felt pressure from the self to engage in masculine behavior was greater than felt pressure from parents or peers. Male adolescents reported higher felt pressure to conform to gender conforming behavior from parents and the self and pressure to avoid gender nonconforming behavior was greatest from peers. Female adolescents reported felt pressure to conform to gender nonconforming behaviors and this pressure was the strongest from the self. Additionally, for both genders, felt pressure from the self was most consistently associated with gender typicality. These findings highlight the importance of self-expectations for gender cognitions relating to both masculine and feminine behaviors.

Over and above Gender Differences in Cyberbullying: Relationship of Gender Typicality to Cyber Victimization and Perpetration in Adolescents

ABSTRACT The present study used a unique measure of self-perceived gender typicality to better examine the association of gender with cyber victimization and perpetration. Participants were 297 adolescent males and females recruited from independent schools in grade 8 (Mage = 13.8) and grade 10 (Mage = 15.8) who completed a self-report survey. Multiple regression analyses revealed that only for males, high other-gender typicality and low same-gender typicality were associated with high cyber victimization, but when same-gender typicality was high there was no association. Independent associations of same- and other-gender typicality with cyber perpetration were present only for males. Findings highlight that the importance of considering same- and other-gender typicality for adolescent boys’ engagement in cyberbullying.

Early Adolescents’ Responses to Witnessing Gender-Based Harassment Differ by their Perceived School Belonging and Gender Typicality

The current study examined bystanders of gender-based harassment (GBH) in early adolescence. Specifically, it examined whether early adolescents’ sense of school belonging, perceived peer support, and self-perceived gender typicality predicted how they respond to witnessing GBH (e.g., whether they confront the perpetrator, seek social support, or ignore it), and whether they feel good or worried about confronting perpetrators of GBH. U.S. 7th and 8th graders (n = 594; 300 male early adolescents and 294 female early adolescents; Mage = 12.74, SD = .70) completed measures of same- and other-gender typicality, school belonging, peer support, and experiences witnessing GBH. Students reported how often they had witnessed GBH, how they thought they would feel about confronting the perpetrator of GBH, and how they responded (or thought they would respond) to witnessing GBH. The more strongly early adolescents felt a sense of belonging to their school, (a) the more worried and good they felt about confronting GBH and (b) the more likely they were to both confront perpetrators of GBH and to seek social support after witnessing GBH. Early adolescents who were lower in gender typicality felt less positively about confronting GBH, but they were more likely to report confronting perpetrators of GBH. These results indicate that bystander interventions targeting GBH should focus on increasing students’ sense of school belonging and considering individuals simultaneously as both targets and bystanders.

Contextual variance and invariance in self-perceived gender typicality and pressure to conform to gender role expectations

Evidence of cultural comparisons of gender-identity-measurement scales is scarce. The present study aims to assess the scalar invariance of two dimensions of a widely used gender identity scale (Egan and Perry’s Multidimensional Gender Identity Inventory) across two cultural contexts. Fourth, sixth, and fifth graders from Barranquilla (Colombia) and Montréal (Canada) (n = 351) completed an abbreviated, self-report revised version of Egan and Perry’s scale. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis demonstrated that typicality and pressure to conform to traditional gender roles are distinct factors and tend to be stable over time. Furthermore, a multi-group comparison analysis showed that the measurement model did not vary significantly as a function of cultural context. Our study adds evidence to support the use of a reliable and valid measurement instrument that is invariant across cultural settings, to allow comparisons that do not depend on contextual variations in the assessment of gender identity during childhood.

Exploring dual gender typicality among young adults in the United States

The goal of the current study was to better understand the development of gender typicality in young adulthood by applying the dual-identity approach to gender typicality, previously developed with children, to a university sample. Participants (n = 215, Mage = 20.20 years; 62% female) were asked to rate their perceived similarity to both own- and other-gender peers. They also completed questionnaires assessing sexist attitudes, internalized sexualization (females), adherence to male-typed behaviors in the context of interpersonal relationships (males; adherence to physical toughness and restrictive emotional expressivity), gender-based relationship efficacy, friendships, self-esteem, social self-efficacy, and social anxiety. Results indicated that self-perceived gender typicality involves comparisons to both gender groups, and that meaningful typologies can be created based on similarity to own- and other-gender groups. As with children, results indicated that identifying with one’s own gender was advantageous in terms of low social anxiety and relationships with own-gender peers. For adults who identified with both own- and other-gender peers, we identified additional social benefits (i.e., efficacy and friendships with other-gender peers). Further, we identified a downside to own-gender typicality: individuals who identified only with their own gender had more sexist attitudes than those who identified with the other gender. Findings support the viability of the dual-identity approach in young adults, and have implications for researchers assessing gender typicality across development.

Sexuality and Gender Role in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Case Control Study

The ‘extreme male brain theory of autism’ describes an extreme male pattern of cognitive traits defined as strong systemising abilities paired with empathising weaknesses in autism spectrum disorder. However, beyond these cognitive traits, clinical observations have suggested an ambiguous gender-typed pattern regarding several sexually dimorphic traits.The aim of the present study was to investigate if patterns of non-cognitive sexually dimorphic traits differed between the autism spectrum disorder and control groups. Fifty adults with autism spectrum disorder and intelligence within the normal range, and 53 neurotypical controls responded to questions on gender role, self-perceived gender typicality and gender identity, as well as sexuality. Measures used were a Swedish modification of the Bem Sex Role Inventory and questions on sexuality and gender designed for the purpose of this study. Our results showed that one common gender role emerged in the autism spectrum disorder group. Masculinity (e.g. assertiveness, leadership and competitiveness) was weaker in the autism spectrum disorder group than in the controls, across men and women. Self-perceived gender typicality did not differ between the groups but tomboyism and bisexuality were overrepresented amongst women with autism spectrum disorder. Lower libido was reported amongst both male and female participants with autism spectrum disorder compared with controls. We conclude that the extreme male patterns of cognitive functions in the autistic brain do not seem to extend to gender role and sexuality. A gender-atypical pattern for these types of characteristics is suggested in autism spectrum disorder.

Self-Perceived Gender Typicality, Gender-Typed Attributes, and Gender Stereotype Endorsement in Elementary-School-Aged Children

This study examined relations among self-perceived gender typicality, gender-typed attributes, and gender stereotype endorsement with a sample of elementary-school-aged children (N = 100, ages 6–12) from the Midwestern United States. Children who perceived themselves as more gender-typical were more interested in same-gender-typed activities and occupations and less interested in other-gender-typed activities and occupations than children who perceived themselves as less gender-typical. Gender typicality was linked to gender stereotype endorsement, as predicted based on Liben and Bigler’s (2002) dual-pathway model of gender development, with children who perceived themselves as less gender-typical having more egalitarian (less stereotyped) attitudes than children who perceived themselves as more gender-typical. The observed relations between gender-typed attributes and self-perceived gender typicality and between self-perceived gender typicality and gender stereotype endorsement did not differ across gender or age. These findings indicate that even young elementary-school-aged children use their knowledge of cultural gender roles to make subjective judgments regarding the self, and, conversely, that views of the self may influence personal endorsement of cultural gender stereotypes. Although the majority of extant research has focused on negative outcomes associated with low self-perceived gender typicality (e.g., low self-esteem), this research indicates that positive outcomes (e.g., flexible gender role attitudes) may also be associated with low self-perceived gender typicality.

Associations Between Fifth Graders’ Gender Atypical Problem Behavior and Peer Relationships: A Short-Term Longitudinal Study

An accruing body of evidence supports associations between self-perceived gender typicality and peer relationship difficulties; however, researchers have yet to evaluate peers' perceptions of problem behaviors to gain insight into the social correlates of gender typicality. A short-term longitudinal study was conducted to evaluate associations between gender atypical problem behavior and subsequent peer relational difficulties for 2,076 fifth graders (M age= 10.27; 53% female). Peer nomination methodology was used to assess participants' classroom peer relationships, problem behaviors, and social-emotional characteristics. Findings showed that youth characterized by gender atypical, compared to gender typical, problem behavior (withdrawn boys/aggressive girls vs. withdrawn girls/aggressive boys, respectively) evidenced higher levels of subsequent peer difficulties; moreover, participation in a mutual friendship was associated with decreased risk for peer relationship maladjustment, particularly among youth characterized by gender atypical problem behavior. Results further revealed that, compared to friendless youth, friended youth earned higher prosocial and peer liking scores and, for withdrawn youth, lower emotional sensitivity scores. The present research contributes to our understanding of the potential short-term consequences of youth's gender atypical problem behavior. Findings underscore the need for supplemental conceptualizations of gender typicality as well as multifaceted interventions designed to promote the acceptance of gender nonnormativity, support the development of adaptive peer relationships, and reduce the occurrence of problem behaviors.

Gender identity: a multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment.

This study examined the relations between components of gender identity and psychosocial adjustment. The aspects of gender identity assessed were (a) feelings of psychological compatibility with one's gender (i.e.. feeling one is a typical member of one's sex and feeling content with one's biological sex), (b) feelings of pressure from parents, peers, and self for conformity to gender stereotypes. and (c) the sentiment that one's own sex is superior to the other (intergroup bias). Adjustment was assessed in terms of self-esteem and peer acceptance. Participants were 182 children in Grades 4 through 8. Felt gender compatibility (when operationalized as either self-perceived gender typicality or feelings of contentment with one's biological sex) was positively related to adjustment, whereas felt pressure and intergroup bias were negatively associated with adjustment. The results provide new insights into the role of gender identity in children's well-being, help identify sources of confusion in previous work, and suggest directions for future inquiry.