Self-medication Research Articles

Prevalence and association of self-medication practices with personal and educational factors among university employees of Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study

ABSTRACT Background and Objective: Self-medication (SM) is an emerging practice in both developing and developed countries. The commonality of this behavior is observed in patients with specific environments. The current study endeavored to determine the prevalence of SM practices and their correlated factors among academic employees in Saudi Arabia. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted at King Saud University Hospital, recruiting 383 participants. The participants received an online survey on self-medication practices. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis. Results: In the study, all the participants reported practicing SM at least one time. Of those who practiced SM, 66.7% (102) were unmarried with a significant difference (P = 0.036) while 68.0% (117) had no children (P = 0.003). Non-Government employees and unemployed participants had the highest percentage of experiencing SM (70.5%, n = 31, P = 0.036). Our results reveal that health perceiving, life satisfaction, and religious reasons were not significantly associated with practicing SM with P value = 0.704, 0.535, and 0.482, respectively. In the univariate model, gender, marital status, and the number of children revealed a significant correlation with SM (P value = 0.136, 0.058, and 0.040), respectively. SM was 1.4 times as likely if the participant was female and 1.3 if the participant was unmarried. The multivariate regression model shows that gender and marital status lost their significance while number of children (P = 0.023) was significantly correlated with SM. Our results also show the main reasons for self-medication were prior knowledge (25%), time-consuming consultations (21.6%), the belief that the condition did not require a doctor (22.4%), and previous experience with similar symptoms (23%) while major causative clinical conditions involved in SM is pain (37.5%) and fever (28.4%). It also shows that 33% experienced no side effects and 34% experienced shortness of breath as a side effect of practicing SM. Conclusion: Our study spotted a significant frequency of SM behavior with high prevalence among University employees. Our study shows that gender, marital status, and number of children have a significant correlation with SM. The pharmacist’s role is pivotal in promoting awareness for the safe utilization of over-the-counter drugs, and their proactive engagement is paramount. Educational health programs should be implemented to minimize SM malpractice.

Self-Medication of Medical Students at Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University in Turkey: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Responsible self-medication (SM) can save time, money, reduce the number of visits to the doctor, and alleviate pressure on health services. However, while there are clear benefits, SM also carries significant risks, such as increased drug side effects, inappropriate use of prescription drugs, drug interactions, misdiagnosis, drug dependence, masking of medical conditions, and antibiotic resistance. This study aimed to investigate the practices of medical students at a public university in Türkiye towards SM, as well as to determine the factors influencing such practices. The population of this cross-sectional study included first-, fourth-, and sixth-year medical students. As the goal was to reach the entire population (375 students), no sample selection was made. A total of 332 students (88.5%) participated in the study.The relevant literature was used for the basis of the questionnaire used in the study. In the statistical evaluation, percentages, means, standard deviations, medians, minimum, and maximum values were used to present the descriptive data, while factors influencing SM were analyzed using the chi-square test and bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis. The overall rate of SM among the participants was found to be 96.1%. No statistically significant difference was observed in SM rates based on the year of study (p>0.05). The rate of students using antibiotics without a prescription was 19.3%. Additionally, 82.5% of the students reported reading the package insert before using a drug. The most common symptoms leading to SM were headaches (83.1%) and the common cold (63.6%). The most frequently self-administered medications were analgesics (86.1%), common cold medicines (54.8%), and vitamins (34.0%). Furthermore, 79.3% of the participants indicated that they self-medicate because they perceive their condition as a simple illness, 64.6% because they had experienced a similar illness before, and 28.2% because they believed they had sufficient knowledge of medications.In multivariate regression analysis, keeping medicines at home/in the dormitory for later use and not having a chronic disease were found to be effective factors in students' practice of SM. It is important to plan educational interventions to promote the development of responsible SM behaviors. Starting these educational programs in the first year of medical school is thought to contribute significantly to the fostering of responsible SM practices.

Self-medication among general population in the European Union: prevalence and associated factors

Self-medication (SM) forms an important part of public health strategy. Nonetheless, little research has been performed to understand the current state of self-medication in the European Union (EU). Utilizing data from the third wave of the European Health Interview Surveys, this study finds an estimated SM prevalence of 34.3% in the EU (95%CI = 34.1-34.5%; n = 255,758). SM prevalence, as well as SM prevalence inequality between men and women, varies substantially between EU member countries. Via multivariable analysis, we also identify a number of variables associated with SM, most notably the substantial impact of health systems on SM behavior (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 4.00; 95% Confidence Interval [95%CI] = 3.81–4.21). Several demographics are also associated with greater SM prevalence, including those aged 25–44 (versus ages 75+: AOR = 1.21; 95%CI = 1.12–1.31), women (AOR = 1.74; 95%CI = 1.68–1.81), immigrants born in other EU states (AOR = 1.16; 95%CI = 1.04–1.30), those with higher education (AOR = 1.83; 95%CI = 1.60–2.09), and urban dwellers (AOR = 1.14; 95%CI = 1.04–1.30). Additionally, long-standing health problems (AOR = 1.39; 95%CI = 1.33–1.45), visits to doctors (both general practitioners and specialists) (AOR = 1.21, 95%CIs = 1.15–1.26, 1.17–1.26), and unmet needs for health care due to waiting lists (AOR = 1.38; 95%CI = 1.23–1.55) or inability to afford medical examinations/treatment (AOR = 1.27; 95%CI = 1.12–1.42) serve as conditioners for SM. We also find that smoking (AOR = 1.05; 95%CI = 1.01–1.10), vaping (AOR = 1.19; 95%CI = 1.06–1.32), drinking alcohol (AOR = 1.23; 95%CI = 1.19–1.28), and higher levels of physical activity (AOR = 1.27; 95%CI = 1.22–1.32) are factors associated with SM. Analysis of these variables reveals that though women self-medicate more than men, the patterns that govern their consumption are similar.

Knowledge and Perceptions of Self-Medication Among Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) Students: A Cross-Sectional, Questionnaire-Based Study.

Self-medication (SM) is a common practice worldwide, and the irrational use of drugs is a cause of concern. Self-medication has various forms, including taking medications without a physician's prescription, using a previous prescription for a similar condition, or using drugs obtainable at home without getting a physician's advice. The youth are highly influenced by the media and the internet, which promote SM behavior. To determine the knowledge and perceptions of SM in Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) students in all professional years, including interns in Acharya Shri Chander College of Medical Sciences (ASCOMS) and Hospital, Jammu. The present study was conducted at ASCOMS Hospital, Jammu. A total of 200 students of MBBS were included in the study. A self-structured questionnaire was used to assess the knowledge and awareness level. The collected data were recorded in a Microsoft Excel sheet (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA) and analyzed with the help of IBM SPSS Statistics software for Windows, version 21.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY). The present study reveals that 60% of the subjects were males and 65% of the students practiced SM, which indicates that SM is highly prevalent amongst MBBS students. It was observed that minor illness and quick relief were the major reasons for SM. Further, headache, cold/cough, and fever were the major indications for SM, whereas antipyretics and analgesics were the most commonly used drugs for SM. Conclusion: The present study concluded that there was a high prevalence of SM practice among medical students, especially among females. However, the knowledge and perceptions of SM were not insufficient.

Over the Counter: Self-Care or Self-Harm? A Mixed Method Study Protocol on Prevalence and Determinants of Self-Medication Practices in Wardha.

Background Self-medication (SM), a common practice globally, possesses a dual challenge of being a self-care strategy and a potential source of harm observed across all age groups. The study is being conducted to gauge the prevalence of SM of prescription drugs with their over-the-counter access, thus addressing the delicate balance between self-care and self-harm related to SM. Material and methods This ongoing convergent parallel mixed method study with quantitative and qualitative components will be conducted on a sample size of 180 subjects aged more than 18 years from an urban community. For the quantitative component, a semi-structured questionnaire will assess the prevalence of SM, types of medications used, reasons for self-medicating, and socio-demographic factors influencing these practices. Concurrently, qualitative interviews delve deeper into the beliefs shaping SM practices. Sampling will be purposive to capture diverse perspectives, with data analyzed using statistical tools. Results This study protocol will offer a comprehensive understanding of the prevalence and determinants of SM practices. The quantitative data provide numerical insights into SM trends, while the qualitative findings elucidate the nuanced factors driving individuals' SM choices. Conclusions A multifaceted view of SM practices will be provided, aiding in developing interventions to promote safe and effective self-care while mitigating the risks of self-harm through SM. Anticipated findings can include a widespread prevalence of SM amongst the general urban populace. Significant associations can also be expected to be found with various independent variables. The results will be instrumental in informing public health policies and healthcare practices toward enhancing patient safety and well-being.

A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY ON SELF-MEDICATION PRACTICES, PERCEPTION, AND ATTITUDES OF UNDERGRADUATE MEDICAL STUDENTS AT A GOVERNMENT TERTIARY CARE TEACHING HOSPITAL IN EASTERN INDIA

Objectives: Self-medication (SM) is common in India. It is of greater significance when practiced by medical students as they going to be medical practitioners in the future. This study was conducted to assess the pattern of SM practices, perceptions, and attitudes among students pursuing 2nd-year professional MBBS in a tertiary medical college in the year 2019. Methods: This study was a cross-sectional one based on a questionnaire. It was conducted among the 2nd-year undergraduate (MBBS) medical students in a tertiary care medical college in West Bengal, India. Results: Out of 199 students approached, 198 consented to the study and filled in the supplied study questionnaire. Thirteen incomplete questionnaires were excluded and the remaining 185 were analyzed. It was found that 81.6% (151/185) respondents practiced SM. The most common ailments for seeking SM were fever 66.2% (100/151), followed by cough cold, and sore throat 55.0% (84/151), diarrhea/nausea, and vomiting 40.4% (61/151). The most common drug used for SM was paracetamol 73.51% (111/151), followed by H1 antihistaminics and proton pump inhibitors. A small percentage of students used topical preparations of steroids, analgesics, antibiotics, and antifungals as well. Among the common reasons for seeking SM, 72.2% (109/151) felt that their illness was mild and 57% (86/151) preferred it as they had prior experience. Conclusion: Our study showed that SM is commonly practiced among the students of this institution. Therefore, medical teachers need to try even more to generate adequate awareness among the students about inherent risks of SM.

Self-medication of Dental Pain amongst Medical Students in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Determinants, Attitude and Clinical Aspects

Introduction: Healthcare students are becoming increasingly concerned about self-medication (SM), which can have major health repercussions. It affects how future physicians make professional decisions about medications. Such a mindset has an indirect impact on providing their patients with appropriate counselling. The study was planned to investigate the attitude, determinants and different clinical aspects associated with SM of dental pain amongst medical students in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Materials and Methods: The present descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted exclusively on the 400 medical students from the 1st year and interns pursuing bachelor’s degrees from various medical colleges in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. A convenient non-probability sampling technique was employed, and a pre-tested/pre-validated questionnaire was loaded on Google Forms and sent to the medical students of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy and nursing programmes. Qualitative characteristics were assessed using the Chi-square test. The significance level (P value) chosen for the various comparisons was P < 0.05. Results: The results of this study show that 65.5% of students self-medicate. It was significantly more common in women (74.9%), pharmacists (76.9%) and dental students (72.7%). Students who self-medicated less often were in the 1st and 2nd years (49.2% and 57.1%). Toothache was the most common cause for which they self-medicated (79.8%). Conclusion: The results of the present study have shed light on the fact that SM was high amongst medical students in Jeddah. The potential problems associated with self-medication should be highlighted to students to reduce the risk of inappropriate SM, which can seriously harm both students and others to whom they prescribe medication.

Consumer’s Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices toward Self-medication: Questionnaire Development and Validation

Background and Aim: Self-medication practices (SMPs) are a common phenomenon prevalent with both prescription and nonprescription medicines. Still, the availability of a valid and reliable instrument to assess the knowledge, attitude, and practices toward self-medication (SM) remains limited. The current pilot study aimed to develop and validate a tool that effectively evaluates these aspects among consumers in Delhi, India. Materials and Methods: The research involved 100 consumer participants from Delhi, India. Reliability and validity testing was conducted to assess reproducibility, internal consistency, and content validity. The questionnaire underwent validation by a panel of five experts to evaluate face and content validity. Results: Test–retest reliability was assessed using Karl Pearson’s correlation co-efficient yielding values of 0.841 (P = 0.002), 0.827 (P = 0.003), and 0.792 (P = 0.006) for the three domains of knowledge, attitude, and frequency of performing SM, respectively. Cronbach’s alpha statistics were used to determine internal consistency, yielding values of 0.775 and 0.839 for knowledge and attitude domains, respectively. The association between the demographic characteristics of respondents and knowledge, attitude, and frequency of SM was assessed using an independent sample t-test and one-way ANOVA, demonstrating satisfactory known group validity. Conclusions: The developed questionnaire proved valid and reliable for determining consumer’s knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward SM. The final tool could be valuable for future research and interventions to improve consumers’ understanding of SMP.

Health literacy as mediator between perception of illness and self-medication behaviour among outpatients in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: implication to primary healthcare nursing

IntroductionPerception of illness (PI) and self-medication (SM) have been thoroughly explored in the existing literature. However, there is a lack of understanding about the mediating effect of health literacy on PI and SM in a non-homogenous population like Saudi Arabia. As such, primary healthcare nurses who have constant interaction with the outpatients have difficulty addressing self-medication. This study aimed to investigate health literacy as mediator between PI and SM among outpatients in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA).MethodsThis study employed a cross-sectional approach and was conducted at 10 major primary healthcare (PHC) clinics serving 30 million individuals in 13 different regions of KSA. The 424 outpatients who participated in this study were selected through convenience sampling. Data collection started in November 2022 and concluded in February 2023.ResultsThe mean of the Brief Health Literacy Screening Tool, self-medication scale (SMS), and PI scores were 13.01 ± 3.32, 27.46 ± 7.01, and 45.56 ± 7.69, respectively. There was a significant relationship between the age and BRIEF scores (p = 0.039), and the level of education was significantly related to all variables, as were nationality and BRIEF scores (p = 0.001). Finally, occupation was significantly related to BRIEF and SMS scores (p = 0.001 and 0.003, respectively). Completing college and being non-Saudi had positively significant effects on health literacy (p < 0.01). The structural equation model (SEM) found no effect of PI on health literacy or SM behaviour (p = 0.263 and 0.84, respectively), but health literacy did have an effect on SM behaviour (p<0.001).ConclusionHealth literacy is an important factor in self-medication behavior and that PI is not directly related to health literacy or self-medication behavior, but that health literacy does influence self-medication behavior. Therefore, primary healthcare givers should promote public health literacy alongside the control of other conditions as one of the most effective ways to decrease the prevalence of self-medication and the risks associated with it.

Self-Medication Practices among Adult Population in Bangladesh: A Cross-Sectional Study.

The practice of self-medication (SM) is common worldwide and is an important component of medical self-care. However, improper practice can be dangerous. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of SM and the factors associated with it among Bangladeshi adults. A cross-sectional survey was conducted between April and June 2021 among Bangladeshi adults (aged > 19 years) using convenient sampling. A total of 1320 subjects were collected through face-to-face interviews using a standardized questionnaire. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with the practice of SM. Overall, 41% of adults in our survey reported SMP. The most common illnesses that prompted SM were common cold/flu (66.4%), gastric problems (65%), and headache (64.4%). The most frequent reasons for SM were to get better-perceived quality of care (30.6%), perceiving SM without side effects (23.3%), and saving time with effectiveness (14.56%). Potential risk factors included 10 years (AOR = 1.91; 95% CI: 1.04-3.50) and >12 years of schooling (AOR = 5.03; 95% CI: 2.27-11.15), being a businessman (AOR = 4.64; 95% CI: 1.74-12.37), having ≤6 family members (AOR = 2.13; 95% CI: 1.40-3.24), being a member of a social group (AOR = 1.53; 95% CI: 1.10-2.12), a health status check after every six months (AOR = 1.52; 95% CI: 1.08-2.13), and current ill-health (AOR = 1.41; 95% CI: 1.06-1.87). Protective factors identified included ≤30 years of age (AOR = 0.40; 95% CI: 0.17-0.93), and practice of modern (AOR = 0.39; 95% CI: 0.22-0.69) and herbal (AOR = 0.45; 95% CI: 0.21-0.97) treatment modality. More than one-third of the study participants reported practicing SM. Increasing the community's awareness of the adverse outcomes of SM and not just the average experience might sway individuals away from SM, and implementing strict jurisdiction could be a way to minimize inappropriate SM.

IJCM_242A: Assessment of self-medication practice among the school teachers of Bhopal

Background: The World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) define self-medication (SM) as a practice by which an individual selects and uses medicines to treat symptoms or minor health problems, recognized as such by themselves. Self-medication has a number of negative effects, including resource waste, greater disease resistance, and drug resistance. Lack of time, convenience, and awareness parameters, as well as distorted thinking, all contribute to today’s never-ending cycle of self medication and its detrimental effects. Objectives: 1. To determine the prevalence of use of self-medication among school teachers of Bhopal. 2. To assess the construct connection between old and new practice by pre &amp; post test scores. Methodology: Quasi-experimental, pre- and post-educational intervention study of randomly selected school teachers of Bhopal, Sample Size 136.5 ~ 140 using Cochran’s formula. A pre-validated, pre-tested, close-ended multiple- choice questionnaire on Socio-Demographic information, various domains like reasons, indications, medications used and source of knowledge for self- medication was filled in digital mode before and after the lecture demonstration. Results: The effectiveness of the educational program on most of the components was found positive. Conclusion: Awareness can be created through social media platforms regarding the detrimental effects of self-medication. Teachers can be the best resource persons in the dissemination of knowledge in schools and colleges.

Assessment of self-medication with analgesics among rural community of South India

World Health Organization defines self-medication (SM) as the self-administration of a medication in the absence of a current prescription and/or without consulting a healthcare professional. Analgesics are the most commonly abused drug as a self-medication for relieving pain of any kind among the people. Our aim was to assess the prevalence of self- medication with analgesics and find the social factors associated among the rural people in Southern India. A community based cross sectional study using cluster sampling technique, four villages (clusters) were randomly selected in a rural District and among 460 respondents belonging to age group 18 to 60 years were interviewed. The mean age in years was 48.4 ± 15.5. About 182(39.6%) were illiterates and many respondents belonged to Agricultural laborers 350(76.1). Self-medication with analgesics is practiced by 24.8% of the respondents. Reason for self-medication was to reduce the out-of-pocket expenditure (72.4%). About 65.8% respondents purchased analgesics over the counter from pharmacy. The prevalence of self‑medication with analgesics was relatively high which is a threat for the community and can lead to multi organ damage to among rural people. Universal policy on drug selling over the pharmacy counter should be strictly implemented.

Estimating the Prevalence of Self-Medication Practices among a Representative Population of Medical Students.

In the domain of healthcare delivery, self medication (SM) is a widely prevalent form of health seeking behavior. The current study has been planned with the objectives to estimate the prevalence of SM practices among medical students, and to assess the knowledge pertaining to SM among the study population. A cross sectional descriptive study will be conducted among a representative population of medical students in a rural medical college for a period of two months among 205 students. The data collection tool will be a pilot tested semi-structured questionnaire and will be used after obtaining written informed consent. The statistical analysis will be done using SPSS version 16. Results will be presented using descriptive (frequency, percentages, mean, and standard deviation) and inferential (chi-square test) statistics. Considering the rising and alarming trends of antimicrobial resistance, it is our duty that we estimate the prevalence of SM among medical students and accordingly create awareness about not encouraging indiscriminate use of over the counter drugs.

The hidden dangers lurking at home: Unveiling the prevalence of leftover antibiotics and its associated factors among Lebanese households

BackgroundAntimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is a major global concern. Irrational use of antibiotics including self-medication (SM) with leftovers without a medical prescription can be a leading cause. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and related factors of leftover antibiotics (LA) in Lebanese households. Study designA cross-sectional study of the Lebanese population was conducted between March and October 2022. MethodsThrough random proportional stratified sampling, a total of 494 families participated in this study. Data collection was carried out through phone calls using a comprehensive and reviewed questionnaire. The data was then analyzed using SPSS version 26. Logistic regression was utilized to identify the factors associated with LA, with the presence of LA in households as the dependent variable and other factors such as age, region of residence, and presence of elderly individuals at home as the independent variables. ResultsAmong selected households, 118 households (23.89%) had LA. The most common type of antibiotic found was penicillin (59.84%). Most of the LA were in the form of tablets and capsules (94%) with valid expiration dates (87%). Antibiotics were mainly prescribed by doctors (61%), and the main reason for prescribing was acute respiratory tract infections (47.46%). SM was reported by 42.37% of the families with LA. A family with elderly patients (p = 0.002; OR = 2.23; 95% CI = 1.33–3.73) and those residing in Mount Lebanon (p = 0.019; OR = 2.28; 95% CI = 1.14–4.56) had significantly higher odds of having LA. ConclusionLeftover antibiotics were found in nearly a quarter of the addressed Lebanese families. Therefore, public educational campaigns should be launched to limit injudicious antibiotic use including SM, and to promote proper disposal of any leftovers. It is also crucial to adopt the One Health approach by developing national programs for the safe disposal of LA and implementing regulations to restrict the distribution of antibiotics in pharmacies without a prescription.

Prevalence of self-medication by parents for various oral health-related problems in their children – A cross-sectional study

Abstract Background: Self-medication (SM) refers to taking medicine without consultation with a doctor or dentist and it is an important health issue. Drug utilization patterns in children is of great concern universally and has gained a lot of attention. With regard to pediatric patients, such practices are entirely under the control of the parent. Aim: This study aims to assess the prevalence of SM by parents for various oral health related problems of children below 15 years of age. Materials and Methods: An observational, cross-sectional study was conducted for 1 year at schools in Nellore, Andhra Pradesh. The study population included 323 parents of children aged up to 15 years. Data were collected from parents to record their sociodemographic information, prevalence of SM along with questions regarding the practice of SM. Fischer’s exact test was used to compare prevalence of SM with age, gender, education, and socioeconomic status (SES) of parent’s. Results: The prevalence of SM was 35% which was significantly influenced by the age of child and parent (P = 0.03), whereas nonsignificantly associated with parents gender (P = 0.502), educational level (P = 0.42), and SES (P = 0.137). Most common dental condition and reason for which SM was practiced is tooth pain (76.1%) and expensive dental treatment (39.8%), respectively. Conclusion: The prevalence of SM was low. SM practice is common in parents of age group ≥40 years and in children above 5 years. Clinical Significance: SM can cause unintentional self-harm. SM with antibiotics have been identified as one of the primary reasons for the evolution of antimicrobial resistance.

Prevalence and predictors of self-medication to prevent or treat COVID-19 among undergraduate students in Southern Brazil.

Self-medication (SM) is the practice of consuming medicines without a prescription. Despite being a potentially dangerous action, SM is practiced globally and has been highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim of this study was to evaluate SM for the prevention or treatment of COVID-19 and the factors associated with this practice among undergraduate students in Southern Brazil. A cross-sectional study was conducted between July and November 2020 using an electronic questionnaire to collect information about the practice of SM and the associated sociodemographic characteristics, health perception, and lifestyle. We collected 1,553 responses and identified a prevalence of 14.9% for SM. The risk factors for SM were earning between BRL 2,101 and BRL 5,250, studying at a public university, and studying a distance undergraduate course. The protective factors were age above 30 years, female sex, working or participating in internships, occasionally recommending their own medications to other people, and worsening health during the pandemic. The main drugs or products used were ivermectin, vitamins C and D, tea, azithromycin, zinc, and propolis. Our data could help in the development of health education measures to reduce SM among undergraduate students and guide the population regarding the risks of this practice.

Patterns of Drug Utilization and Self-Medication Practices: A Cross Sectional Study.

Self-medication (SM) is a growing phenomenon worldwide that has recently been classified as one of the most serious public health problems. SM can result in an incorrect self-diagnosis, inappropriate treatment, potential adverse reactions, interactions, and the masking of more sinister disease. To assess the prevalence of SM practices amongst healthcare professionals and the general population in Saudi Arabia and to identify the sociodemographic contributing factors to this practice. A total of 540 participants were enrolled in this study. Participants were asked to complete the study questionnaire comprising two sections to gather demographic information and to collect data regarding SM practice. The prevalence of SM practice among the study participants was 78.6%, and it was the highest among the middle age groups of (21-40 years) 82% compared to the younger and older age groups. The observed prevalence was higher in the female participants (53.7%) and those who live alone. Type of education did not affect the attitude of SM (p = 0.374); however, level of education strongly affected the prevalence of the SM, with higher incidence among university graduates (p < 0.001). Analgesics with antipyretics properties were the most self-medicated drugs. Patients considering their illnesses minor was the main reason behind the high prevalence of this practice. Among healthcare professions the highest prevalence of SM was found among pharmacists (95%), followed by physicians, nurses, and other medical practitioners. The general population should be better educated and made conscious about the consequences, risks, and side effects of SM. Awareness campaigns may prove to be useful in this matter, allowing the patient to consider the appropriateness of this practice. Individuals in the age group of 21-40 years, females, and those who live alone should be considered priority target populations in the design and implementation of SM awareness projects.

Highlighting the pivotal role of the pharmacist in influencing health behaviours during emergency crisis: A lesson from the COVID-19 pandemic

Background: The contribution of the pharmacist in influencing health behaviours and raising awareness of the impact of self-medication (SM) is valuable. During the COVID-19 pandemic, SM was triggered by multiple factors driven by the fear of becoming infected. This study aimed to identify the determinants of SM during the outbreak, with a focus on the role of social media, and to determine areas where the active contribution of the pharmacist needs strengthening. Methods: A pilot cross-sectional study using snowball sampling was conducted in thirteen countries. Results: A total of 2369 participants with a mean age of 30.62±11.57 years were enrolled in the study. The determinants of SM were 1) sociodemographic characteristics, including developing countries (ORa= 0.670; 95%CI [0.49, 0.91]); 2) communication channels, where Facebook was the most used social media platform (ORa=1.624; 95%CI [1.29, 2.05]); and 3) content and sources of unverified information, i.e. television interviews (ORa=1.357; 95%CI [1.03, 1.78]) and videos with someone confirming the effectiveness of medication used (ORa=1.353; 95%CI [1.06, 1.73]). The perceived risk severity was associated with elderly polypharmacy (ORa= 2.468; 95%CI [1.87, 3.26]). Conclusion: The pharmacist should collaboratively and actively contribute to the design and implementation of health promotion programmes and convert to positive the influence of social media.

Self-medication and medication storage practices among Lira University students in Lira city, Northern Uganda.

Self-medication (SM) is a global public health concern, particularly prevalent in developing nations. It involves the consumption of drugs without professional guidance, encompassing both over-the-counter and prescription medicines. Responsible SM can alleviate healthcare burdens, reduce costs, and empower individuals to manage minor ailments independently. However, improper SM practices can lead to adverse effects, contribute to antimicrobial resistance, and pose various health risks. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of SM and related practices of storing medications among students at Lira University, located in Lira City West Division, Northern Uganda. This study adopted a quantitative cross-sectional design, focusing on students from various faculties. The sample size comprised 422 students, determined using the Kish Leslie formula. Data collection involved the administration of self-administered questionnaires, and subsequent data analysis was performed using SPSS version 25. The study involved participants from Lira University, primarily women (51.2%) with an average age of 23.82. A majority were Christians (59.7%) and single (87.9%). Most were from the Faculty of Health Sciences (63.7%), with third-year students being the largest group (48.3%). Regarding SM, 74.2% practiced SM, with antibiotics (69.2%) and tablets (69.2%) being commonly self-administered. In terms of medication storage, 93.4% kept medicines at home, mostly in cupboards (76.5%), but many were unsure about proper storage practices. Participants exhibited good knowledge of SM's risks and measures to reduce them. There was a significant association between the faculty of study and SM practices (p = 0.015), while other demographic factors showed no significant associations. This study sheds light on the prevalent SM practices among students at Lira University in Northern Uganda. Notably, antibiotics were frequently self-medicated, raising concerns about antibiotic resistance. Additionally, medication storage practices emphasize the need for proper education on storage guidelines. However, the participants exhibited good knowledge of the risks associated with SM, suggesting the potential for effective awareness campaigns. The study recommends targeted health education programs, stricter regulations on medication sales, improved healthcare access, proper medication disposal, further research on the factors driving SM, collaborative efforts, and monitoring of antibiotic use to address this public health issue effectively.

A Cross-Sectional Study on Self-Medication Prevalence and Usage Patterns: An Alarming Concept Among the Saudi Population.

Self-medication (SM) has many potential drawbacks, including toxicity, drug resistance, severe adverse effects, drug interactions, drug abuse, and drug dependence, but it is still widely used for a variety of reasons, including time and money savings, symptom prevention or treatment of minor illnesses, a lack of access to doctors, etc. This study aimed to describe and analyse the usage of antibiotics without a prescription, self-medication practises, and patterns of using them among Saudis. In 13 provinces of Saudi Arabia, a community-based cross-sectional study was done. After gaining consent, data were gathered from 420 adults during face-to-face interviews using a questionnaire. SPSS was used to analyse the data once it had been entered into Microsoft Excel (Microsoft® Corp., Redmond, WA). Regarding self-medication, among 208 participants, there was a male predominance and among upper lower class with respect to socioeconomic status. The self-medication rate was found to be higher among graduates and professionals with respect to education and occupation. Self-medication was discovered to be more prevalent among metropolitan residents. The majority of those who started using self-medication got their knowledge from various advertisements. The most frequent symptom of self-medication was fever, followed by a common cold. The most commonly used medication was paracetamol, followed by cough syrups. Weight loss advertisements influence participants the most for self-medication, followed by hair loss and diabetes. TV advertisements have the highest influence on people practising self-medication. The study calls for greater knowledge of the impacts of antibiotic self-medication, which can be accomplished through efficient measures including behaviour change communication and encouraging more research into its causes and effects.