Self-initiated Expatriates Research Articles

The inadequacy of using a few criteria to define self-initiated expatriates: a systematic literature review and proposed definition

The inadequacy of using a few criteria to define self-initiated expatriates: a systematic literature review and proposed definition

Transcending boundaries

This study investigated the transpersonal effects of self-initiated expatriation among retirees, a phenomenon increasingly significant in today’s globalised world. The research contextualised expatriation within a broader exploration of retirees’ pursuit of a better quality of life, cultural enrichment, and personal growth, situating these motivations within the existing literature on ageing and transpersonal psychology. Employing organic inquiry, a method that captures deeply personal and transformative experiences, and looking into the experiences of four expatriate retirees, the study revealed four key themes: the initial call to expatriation, identity reformation through cultural immersion, the challenges of cultural integration, and the psychological rebirth characterised by gerotranscendence. Findings suggest that expatriation in retirement leads to profound psychological and spiritual transformations, fostering a redefined sense of self and an expanded worldview. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of the psychological and spiritual dimensions of retirement and ageing, challenging traditional narratives and offering new perspectives for scholars, policymakers, and individuals considering expatriation. The study fills a critical gap in the literature by providing a nuanced exploration of the personal and transpersonal consequences of expatriation.

Knowledge Sharing of Self-Initiated Expatriates: The Effects of Job Embeddedness, Career Capital, and Supervisor Incivility

Knowledge Sharing of Self-Initiated Expatriates: The Effects of Job Embeddedness, Career Capital, and Supervisor Incivility

“The Path is Made by Walking”: The Untapped Potential of (the Happiest) Spanish Self-Initiated Expatriates

This study investigates the impact of cross-cultural adjustment and subjective well-being on the achievements and intentions of Spanish self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) regarding their decision to stay abroad or return to Spain. Using resource conservation theory, the research examines how SIEs’ agency influences their adjustment and well-being, thus affecting their achievement and propensity to repatriate. A tailored online survey was administered to Spanish SIEs, incorporating validated scales to cross-cultural adjustment, subjective well-being, and intention to stay abroad. Using non-probability sampling, a final sample of 309 SIEs was obtained. Data analysis employed partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) to validate the hypotheses. The results show that improved adjustment and well-being of SIEs correlate with improved achievement and reduced likelihood of repatriation. These results underline the importance of cultural adjustment and subjective well-being in shaping SIEs’ expatriation experiences and their intentions to stay abroad. Furthermore, the research lays the groundwork for future comparative studies and underlines the need for home institutions to facilitate the repatriation process. Moreover, the implications of the findings for management offer ideas for improving the experiences of SIEs abroad and recognising their value as assets to both national and global organizations, while addressing the challenges associated with repatriation.

Cross-Cultural Career Paths: Analyzing Traditional and Boundaryless Orientations Among Expatriates in Saudi Arabia's Banking Sector

This study aimed to investigate differences in dominant career orientations between self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) and company-assigned expatriates (AEs). Schein’s career model provides a theoretical framework to investigate differences in career preferences and orientations between SIEs and AEs. This paper builds career constructs by dividing the eight career anchors into two groups (boundaryless and traditional-oriented anchors). The career anchor model is used to investigate if a comparable sample of SIEs and AEs drawn from the banking sector in Saudi Arabia exhibits traditional and/or boundaryless career orientations. A between-subjects design was used, and MANOVA was used to analyze data from 418 expatriates working within the Saudi banking sector to understand how the career orientations of SIEs and AEs differ. Compared to AEs, SIEs were found to be more oriented to traditional career anchors characterized by technical/functional competence and security/stability. This study makes an important contribution to existing knowledge on SIE orientations by identifying differences that exist between traditional and boundaryless careers. The findings reveal differences between SIEs and AEs regarding their technical/functional competence, security/stability, lifestyle, and pure challenge career anchors. Managers need to use bespoke HRM policies and procedures to cater to the career orientation of each expatriate cohort accordingly. This quantitative study reveals factors that impact organizationally and individually managed careers in different directions. Therefore, this study presents a clear distinction between the two career orientations and argues that they can be viewed through the lenses of boundaryless and/or traditional career perspectives.

Self-initiated expatriates in China: multicultural personality traits, frequency of interaction and host country nationals’ satisfaction with SIE performance

Drawing from socioanalytic theory and intergroup contact hypothesis, this study investigates the relationship across self-initiated expatriates’ (SIEs’) multicultural personality traits and host country nationals’ (HCNs’) satisfaction with SIE performance in China. Findings based on dyadic matched data from 101 SIEs and HCN co-workers suggest that four of the multicultural personality traits (cultural empathy, flexibility, social initiative, emotional stability) are positively related to HCNs’ satisfaction with SIE performance. Only SIEs’ open-mindedness did not exert an influence on HCNs’ satisfaction with SIE performance. Furthermore, frequency of interaction between the SIE and their HCN co-worker moderated the relation between two of the multicultural personality traits (cultural empathy, emotional stability) and the outcome variable. Analyses imply that if frequency of interaction is low, cultural empathy and emotional stability exert a stronger influence on HCNs’ satisfaction with SIE performance. Our findings contribute to the existing literature by providing deeper insights into the dynamics of expatriate personality and working conditions and how they inform HCNs’ satisfaction with SIE performance.

Protean Careers and Career Success Among Self-Initiated Expatriates in Overseas Work

Protean Careers and Career Success Among Self-Initiated Expatriates in Overseas Work

Expatriate’s protean career orientation and cross-cultural adjustment: the mediating role of career adaptability

PurposeIHRM identifies career adaptability and cross-cultural adjustment as the central tenants for expatriate career. The present study focuses on; (1) it employs the theoretical framework of career construction theory (CCT) to examine the relationship between adaptive readiness, resources and responses by examining the relationship between protean career orientation, career adaptability and cross-cultural adjustment of self-initiated expatriates (SIE) and (2) it explores the moderating role of frequency of interaction that SIEs possess with HCN.Design/methodology/approachA total of 278 Indian SIEs engaged in different occupational roles in different sectors, working in six different countries, i.e. United Arab Emirates, Canada, Germany, Singapore, the United Kingdom and the USA responded through primary survey.FindingsConsistent with CCT conceptualization, the study illustrates a positive partial mediating effect of career adaptability on the direct relationship between protean career orientation and cross-cultural adjustment. Furthermore, the findings of the moderation analysis suggest that frequent interaction of the SIE facilitates the enhancing of cross-cultural adjustment.Practical implicationsThe study suggests that lack of protean career orientation might result in lowering employee interest in the job or assignment, and affect effectiveness, satisfaction, productivity and cross-cultural adjustment. The study also recommends systematically increasing the interaction frequency with the HCNs to facilitate SIEs employees for facilitating cross-cultural adjustments (CCA).Originality/valueThe study theoretically and empirically contributes to protean career orientation and career adaptability in the context of expatriates, which is an enabling factor for CCA in job contexts. The relevance of interaction frequency is acknowledged for the adaptability and adjustments for the international workforce perspective.

The moderating effect of Social Support on the Relationship between Cultural Intelligence and Cross-Cultural Adjustment of Chinese Expatriates in Ghana

Literature shows that not all individuals are equally suited to embark on a new life in another country, and self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) could be particularly susceptible to failure since they have no support from a home organization. The study sought to examine the moderation role of Social Support in relation to Cultural intelligence (CQ) Cross-Cultural Adjustment of Chinese Self-initiated Expatriates (SIEs) in Ghana. A sample of 400 respondents was selected for the study. Questionnaires were used to collect data via an online survey. Data was analyzed using PLS-SEM for the analysis, PLS algorithms and Bootstrapping tests were performed. Findings suggested that social support acquired by Chinese SIEs from host country citizens had no moderating influence on the relationship between their CQ and their capacity to adapt cross culturally to Ghanaian cultural situations. The study's findings will help SIEs, human resource practitioners, and cross-cultural managers who work with SIEs to understand the requirements for effective cross-cultural management towards reducing expats failure.

How language power, white subalternity and compressed modernity frame highly-skilled non-Western migrants in an East-German company: insights from multi-sited ethnography

PurposeThis paper shows the benefits of multi-sited ethnography for global migration studies in management, in particular when cosmopolitan self-initiated expatriates meet a local setting.Design/methodology/approachThe author conducted a multi-sited ethnography to trace how a local East German research organization’s well-intended approach to integration becomes condescending.FindingsHighly skilled non-Western migrant employees who represent English-language cosmopolitanism are framed as negatively “foreign” by corporate discourses and practices. This phenomenon can only be understood if one follows the interconnections of language power, White subalternity and compressed modernity and if one considers the immediate surroundings, the historical context of East German identity and wider migration frames in Germany.Research limitations/implicationsMulti-sited ethnography, if power-sensitive and historically-aware, is suitable for understanding the multi-level phenomenon of global migration and identifying limiting framing-effects on management and organizations. Researcher standpoint is both its strength and its limitation.Practical implicationsManagers and companies can “imagine otherwise” and move beyond the unquestioned dominant frames limiting their problem analyses and, consequently, their strategies and actions.Social implicationsManagers and companies are enabled to move beyond individual- and corporate-level approaches to managing migration at work and can thus take up full social responsibility in the sense of good corporate citizenship on a global level. Global mobility researchers can work towards an inclusive migration theory.Originality/valueMulti-sited ethnography, in particular, one that is power-sensitive and historically aware, is an approach not yet applied to migration in the context of management and organization. By means of an example, this paper illustrates the value of this approach and enables researchers to understand its main principles. Compressed modernity and White subalternity are introduced as novel concepts structuring migration, and language power emerges as relevant far beyond the scope of the multinational corporation.

Knowledge sharing between self-initiated expatriates and host country nationals: a dyadic investigation

ABSTRACT We investigate knowledge sharing between self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) and host country nationals (HCNs) based on theoretical insights from social exchange and self-categorisation theories. In particular, we examine the interplay between the quality of the exchange relationship vested in cognition- and affect-based trust, along with intercultural group climate, and evaluate whether differences in the assessments made by participants impact the outcomes of their knowledge sharing. Our findings, derived from a dyadic study of 101 SIEs and 101 HCNs in China, indicate that affect-based trust fully mediates the association between cognition-based trust and knowledge sharing between SIEs and HCNs. Furthermore, intercultural group climate moderates the mediating effects of cognition-based trust on knowledge sharing via affect-based trust, although not in the hypothesised direction. Our contribution to knowledge management research lies in deepening the insights into how the quality of the exchange relationship between SIEs and HCNs affects the knowledge sharing process.

A Study on the Careers of Taiwanese Self-Initiated Expatriate Teachers-Protean Career Perspectives

A Study on the Careers of Taiwanese Self-Initiated Expatriate Teachers-Protean Career Perspectives

Self-initiated expatriates' cultural intelligence, embeddedness and career satisfaction: a whole-life perspective

PurposeDrawing on the whole-life perspective of career development and the conservation of resources theory, the authors consider whether self-initiated expatriates' (SIEs’) cultural intelligence (CQ) is a general, cross-domain resource that helps SIEs gain resources in the work and nonwork domains. The authors contend that CQ will be associated with greater levels of organizational and community embeddedness, which in turn will facilitate their career satisfaction. The authors also propose the role of perceived host country community diversity climate as an environmental condition that, when low, strengthens the relationships between CQ and organizational and community embeddedness.Design/methodology/approachThe authors examine the study hypotheses based on two distinct samples of SIEs (Sample 1: 169 Asian SIE professionals; Study 2: 147 SIE academics).FindingsSIEs' CQ positively relates to their organizational and community embeddedness, which in turn is associated with greater levels of career satisfaction. The authors also find that SIEs with high CQ are more likely to experience community embeddedness and career satisfaction when they perceive that the host country community diversity climate is low.Originality/valueFirst, this study goes beyond existing literature that rarely examines nonwork inputs to SIE career success. Second, extending previous CQ research with a strong organizational focus, the authors investigated how CQ influences SIEs' work and nonwork embeddedness. Third, the authors found that the absence of a peripheral ecological condition, perceived host country community diversity climate, may strengthen the direct relationship between CQ and embeddedness and the indirect relationship between CQ and career satisfaction.

Exploring Opportunities and Successes: Navigating Self-Initiated Expatriates in the USA

The primary objective of this study is to enhance the comprehension of the obstacles and achievements faced by self-initiated expatriates residing in the United States. By employing in-depth interviews, this study examines the intricate experiences of individuals who have engaged in self-initiated expatriation, thereby providing insights into the challenges and opportunities encountered by organizations operating in this particular context. Through the utilization of a qualitative methodology, the study captures the multifaceted narratives and distinct viewpoints of the participants, thereby unraveling the intricate intricacies of their individual journeys. This provide valuable insights into the complex relationship between individuals and organizations in the context of self-initiated expatriation. This was achieved through the use of thematic analysis. The results of the study emphasize that self-initiated expatriates possess distinctive abilities and viewpoints, presenting a valuable asset for organizations seeking to improve innovation and adaptability. The research highlights examples in which organizations effectively leverage the capabilities of Social Impact Enterprises, attaining a synergistic equilibrium between centralized global oversight and individual independence.

Navigating repatriation: factors influencing turnover intentions of self-initiated repatriates in emerging economies

PurposeThe repatriation process often involves challenging and unexpected readjustment issues, leading to high turnover amongst repatriates. However, research has focussed on the re-entry decisions and experiences of company-assigned (CA) repatriates, whilst studies on self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) that repatriate back to their home countries (i.e. self-initiated repatriates (SIRs)) are limited, particularly in emerging transition economies. This study develops and tests a model to explain the factors influencing professional SIRs' turnover intentions and how repatriation readjustment affects their intentions in Vietnam.Design/methodology/approachThe data was collected from 445 Vietnamese professional SIRs who worked and/or studied for extended periods overseas and subsequently returned to Vietnam. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to analyse the data.FindingsResults indicate that both work and life repatriation adjustment difficulties have significant positive effects on turnover intentions, whilst only repatriation life adjustment difficulties have an indirect effect via life dissatisfaction. Further, cultural distance positively influences repatriation adjustment difficulties and turnover intentions. SIRs' on-the-job and off-the-job embeddedness negatively moderate the influence of repatriation work and life adjustment difficulties on turnover intentions, respectively.Originality/valueThe study develops a theoretical model explaining how repatriation difficulties impact the turnover intentions of SIRs, considering contextual factors including cultural distance and embeddedness. The research highlights the importance of job embeddedness as a form of social and organisational support for SIRs in managing psychological challenges related to repatriation, which can help reduce turnover and retain highly skilled talent. Additionally, the study extends repatriation research on an under-researched subgroup of SIEs, SIRs, in an under-researched emerging transition economy context.

Determinants of self esteem and resultant job satisfaction of self-initiated expatriate primary and secondary teachers of Indian origin: An empirical study from the gulf region

The main purpose of this study is to identify those factors that could potentially enhance the self-esteem of Self-Initiated Expatriate (SIE) educators in Primary and Secondary education in the Sultanate of Oman and the influence of self-esteem on their job satisfaction. In a culturally different environment where people migrate generally to improve their financial conditions, this study also aims at identifying the influence of rewards, and recognition on the impact of self-esteem on job satisfaction. Data about the perceptions of Organizational Support, Support to Students, Teaching Philosophy, Self-esteem, Rewards and recognition, and Job Satisfaction of 535 self-initiated expatriate teachers of Primary and Secondary education in the Sultanate of Oman has been analysed by correlation and regression analyses. The results showed that variables like Organizational Support, Support to Students, and Teaching Philosophy were highly significant in predicting the Self-Esteem of teachers. It was also found that the relationship between self-esteem and Job Satisfaction was not moderated by Rewards and recognition. The implications of this study are of greater relevance to the School Management Committees and the School Administrations on the need to adopt appropriate strategies to enhance the self-esteem of educators.

Does the overall justice climate enhance self-initiated expatriates' creativity during uncertain times ? The mediating role of cross-cultural psychological capital

PurposeBuilding on the conservation of resources (COR) theory, this study aims to explore how overall justice climate (OJC) and cross-cultural psychological capital (CCPsyCap) help highly skilled expatriates develop creative behaviours despite disruptive global macro-events. This topic has not been extensively researched in the context of expatriation, especially amongst self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries.Design/methodology/approachThe data were collected through a web-based questionnaire from 307 SIEs coming from the MENA region and working in different sectors of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The responses were analysed via partial least squares-structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM).FindingsEmpirical evidence shows that no significant direct correlation exists between the OJC and the creativity of SIEs. However, the results demonstrate that this relationship was completely mediated by CCPsyCap.Practical implicationsThe context of high uncertainty may limit individuals' cognitive abilities amongst individuals, in turn, reducing their level of creativity. In this regard, this study identifies the need for host organisations to develop fair human resource policies to enhance creative behaviours amongst SIEs in such a context. It also underlines the role of psychological resources as a coping mechanism that helps those expatriates cope with the diverse challenges of their international assignments.Originality/valueThis study offers new theoretical support for understanding how the combination of OJC and psychological resources constitutes a springboard for enhancing SIEs' creativity in a context of hardship. This study also advances the COR theory by adopting a “cross-level resources caravans” approach.

Dynamics of male society at work in Japanese firms: inclusion of female self-initiated expatriates in the labour force?

PurposeThis research aims to explore whether or not the widely adopted diversity management strategy of Japanese firms aids female self-initiated expatriates' careers. Japan is famous for its male-dominated society (e.g. Hofstede, 2003), which seems to conflict with the recent fading of this strategy in Japanese firms. To what extent does the strategy work for Japanese organisations and how do female self-initiated expatriates perceive it?Design/methodology/approachAn interview-based qualitative methodology is used to collect testimony from female self-initiated expatriates who are currently working fulltime in Japanese firms. The interviews were conducted with 22 female expats who come from 13 different countries.FindingsAlthough the strategy aims for equality, gender still matters in Japanese society and within firms. The interviews found that male-centred rules set out every single step for local employees' behaviours. “Male things” are defined everywhere at work, which makes female expats sceptical of Japan and Japanese firms. The dynamics of the male-based rule seem to eliminate female expats from the centre of organisational society.Originality/valueDiscussion over female expatriates has been increasing due to the frequent movement of international labour to Japan. Also gender fairness has been pushed by the international community, including Japanese. These factors, however, have yet to be explored in the context of the Japanese workplace for female international expatriates. What do we know about female expats working in Japan? What does the male dominance mean for female expats? This study provides an initial insight on female and expatriate diversity management in Japan.

Does Career Adaptability Motivate Self-initiated Expatriates to Embed with Their Jobs? The Mediating Effect of Job Crafting

The aim of this research is to empirically investigate the career adaptability–job embeddedness relation by examining the mediating effect of job crafting using the job demands-resources theory. Using survey data from 881 self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) working in multinational companies across the UAE, a mediation model is tested. Structural equation modelling was utilized to assess the proposed hypotheses. The findings show that career adaptability improves job embeddedness. Furthermore, job crafting mediates the career adaptability and job embeddedness relationship. Job crafting and job embeddedness may benefit from high levels of career adaptability. The findings support the mediator effects of job crafting on career adaptability and SIEs’ job embeddedness. This study recommends job crafting as an imperative factor that influences career adaptability and job embeddedness relationships.

The mediating performance role of staffing options in MNE subsidiary strategies within rapidly deteriorating environments

PurposeIn an environment of intensive global mobility, this study aims to investigate the performance role of staffing choices within diverse MNE subsidiary strategies. Incorporating the integration-responsiveness (IR) framework with a contingency perspective, this study proposes that the performance success of distinct MNE subsidiary strategies depends on staffing choices. This study argues that performance differences of staffing choices such as assigned expatriates, self-initiated expatriates, former inpatriates and host-country nationals derive from their different knowledge/experience advantages regarding the intra-firm environment and local market conditions.Design/methodology/approachThe study utilizes a unique sample of 169 foreign subsidiaries located in Greece that faced the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (in 2020). For robustness reasons, this study also captures the imposition of capital controls (in June 2015).FindingsThis study finds important mediating performance effects of a diversified human resource portfolio across distinct subsidiary strategies in difficult times. Integration strategy tends to use more assigned expatriates, locally responsive strategy tends to utilize more host-country nationals, whereas multi-focal strategy favors self-initiated expatriates and former inpatriates, with positive subsidiary performance effects accordingly. So, staffing policies that are suitable to balance the needs of Human Resource Management (HRM) portfolio differ from strategy to strategy. Moreover, this study finds that managing HRM diversity is crucial in turbulent times.Originality/valueWhile the empirical evidence has been predominantly accumulated from large economies, largely neglecting performance effects of MNE subsidiary staffing in crisis contexts, the analysis sheds light on a small open economy (i.e. the Greek context) emphasizing rapidly environmental deterioration. The findings extend existing theorizing on international performance and HRM management by providing an integrative conceptual framework linking integration-responsiveness motivated strategies with distinct groups of high-quality human resources under contingency considerations, so creatively synthesizing largely fragmented IB and HRM research streams. The study provides valuable insights into the performance role of non-conventional staffing choices such as self-initiated expatriates and former inpatriates, given that relevant studies examine either exclusively expatriates or compare expatriates with host country nationals, reaching inconclusive results.