Self-control Demands Research Articles

The cognitive cost of going the extra mile: How striving for improvement relates to cognitive performance.

Organizations are increasingly expecting individuals to engage in task proactivity, that is, to find better ways of doing their job. While prior research has demonstrated the benefits of task proactivity, little is known about its cognitive costs. To investigate this issue, we build theory on how task proactivity affects end-of-day cognitive performance. We propose that task proactivity involves deviating from established ways of working and engaging in cognitively demanding activities requiring high levels of mental effort, which manifest as an erosion of end-of-day cognitive performance. In two daily diary studies, we found that individuals engaging in task proactivity experience lower end-of-day cognitive performance (Study 1 over five consecutive workdays: n = 163, k = 701; Study 2 with multiple daily assessments over seven consecutive workdays: n = 93, k = 471), even when controlling for task performance (Study 1) and beginning-of-day cognitive performance (Study 2). In two experiments, we then show that simulating task proactivity results in greater mental effort and lower routineness but not in greater ego depletion (Study 3: N = 318 and Study 4: N = 319) or increased self-control demands, -effort, or -motivation (Study 4). This provides support for our proposed cognitive pathway. Our findings enhance our understanding of the cognitively demanding nature of task proactivity and provide empirical support for its cognitive costs using a mental fatigue lens. They also suggest that the impact of a cognitively demanding activity like task proactivity may persist throughout the day and carry over to other tasks involving cognitive performance. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

When is Taking Charge Depleting? Job Control and Self-Control Demands as Moderators in Daily Depletion Processes

When is Taking Charge Depleting? Job Control and Self-Control Demands as Moderators in Daily Depletion Processes

A Tutorial on Analyzing Ecological Momentary Assessment Data in Psychological Research With Bayesian (Generalized) Mixed-Effects Models

In this tutorial, we introduce the reader to analyzing ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data as applied in psychological sciences with the use of Bayesian (generalized) linear mixed-effects models. We discuss practical advantages of the Bayesian approach over frequentist methods and conceptual differences. We demonstrate how Bayesian statistics can help EMA researchers to (a) incorporate prior knowledge and beliefs in analyses, (b) fit models with a large variety of outcome distributions that reflect likely data-generating processes, (c) quantify the uncertainty of effect-size estimates, and (d) quantify the evidence for or against an informative hypothesis. We present a workflow for Bayesian analyses and provide illustrative examples based on EMA data, which we analyze using (generalized) linear mixed-effects models to test whether daily self-control demands predict three different alcohol outcomes. All examples are reproducible, and data and code are available at https://osf.io/rh2sw/ . Having worked through this tutorial, readers should be able to adopt a Bayesian workflow to their own analysis of EMA data.

No longer able to or no longer wanting to? Are intention violations failures to exert or decisions not to exert self-control?

Several theoretical models describe two pathways linking self-control demands with subsequent goal violations. The volitional pathway suggests that these goal violations should be interpreted as failures, while the motivational pathway suggests an interpretation as decisions. In this article, we examined (a) which psychological processes may explain the relationship between self-control demands and subsequent intention violations and (b) to what extent these violations reflect self-control failures rather than deliberate decisions. Results of two experience sampling studies showed that facing demands can trigger two opposing processes: fatigue, which leads to more subsequent violations of intentions, and the feeling that one deserves a reward, which leads to fewer subsequent violations of intentions due to boosts in self-efficacy. The actor may attribute intention violations to either an inability to act otherwise (indicating an actual failure) or a deliberate decision (indicating no failure). The different attributions have marked implications for the cognitive and affective downstream consequences of violating one’s goals, pointing to the importance of distinguishing between actual and apparent failures in self-control.

Correction to Diestel (2022).

Reports an error in "How strategies of selective optimization with compensation and role clarity prevent future increases in affective strain when demands on self-control increase: Results from two longitudinal studies" by Stefan Diestel (Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2022[Aug], Vol 27[4], 426-440). In the original article, Table 3 needed updates to align the columns properly and to add the asterisk and double asterisk symbols (indicating * p < .05 and ** p < .01) in several entries in the last 3 'Estimate' columns. In the same Table, the third decimal place of the standard error value for 'Affective strain at T1' needed to be corrected in the Step 2 section under the 'Changes in affective strain from T1 to T2 in Sample 2' header. Additionally, Figure 2 included an error in one of the t-values; for "High SOC-strategies and high role clarity at T1," t = 0.184 should have been t = 0.156. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2022-55823-001). In modern working environments effective strategies for regulating goal-directed behavior and allocating and investing limited resources (e.g., selection, optimization, and compensation [SOC] strategies) should enable employees to cope up with job demands that require volitional self-regulation, thereby preventing strain over time. However, theoretical insights suggest that the beneficial impact of SOC strategies on psychological health depends on the degree to which employees experience clarity in their job role. To understand how employees stabilize their psychological health when demands increase over time, I examine interaction effects of changes in self-control demands (SCDs), SOC strategies and role clarity at an earlier point in Time on changes in affective strain in two longitudinal samples from different occupational and organizational settings (international private bank: N = 389; heterogenous sample: N = 313, 2 year lag). In line with recent conceptualizations of chronic forms of distress, affective strain involved emotional exhaustion, depressive symptoms, and negative affect. In support of my predictions, structural equation modeling revealed significant three-way interactions of changes in SCDs, SOC strategies and role clarity on changes in affective strain in both samples. In particular, the positive relationships between changes of SCDs and changes in affective strain were jointly buffered by SOC strategies and role clarity. The present findings offer implications for stabilizing well-being when demands increase over long time periods. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Keep it steady? Not only average self-control demands matter for employees’ work engagement, but also variability

ABSTRACT Previous research has demonstrated that work-related self-control demands deplete regulatory resources and thus impair employees’ functioning. But what is more harmful to employees – facing consistent self-control demands throughout the day or frequently switching between activities that require varying levels of self-control (i.e. self-control demands variability)? To answer this question, we draw from theories of psychological contrast to propose the variability of self-control demands (i.e. changes in self-control demands within a day) as a contingency that amplifies the negative impact of daily (mean) self-control demands on evening ego depletion, which in turn spills over to next-day work engagement. This amplifying effect occurs because on days with high self-control demands variability, the contrast between unpleasant and pleasant activities at work becomes particularly salient, which requires additional self-control due to stronger experienced goal-desire conflicts. We propose that employees with high levels of burnout may be particularly vulnerable to the exacerbating effects of self-control demands variability because they suffer from chronic impairments of their ability to exert self-control. A daily diary study with 86 employees across ten days (N = 525 measurement points) largely supports our conceptual framework.

I can(not) control myself: The role of self‐transcendence values and situational strength in explaining depleted managers' interpersonal injustice

AbstractThis study investigated whether, and under what conditions, self‐control demands (SCD) are associated with less interpersonal justice (politeness or respect) and more interpersonal injustice (degrading or inappropriate remarks) behavior. Drawing from extended self‐control theory and integrating the motivation literature, we posit that (1) SCD have a stronger effect on actors' attempts not to be unfair than on their attempts to be fair because avoidance behavior is more demanding than approach behavior. Further, extended self‐control theory posits that people control themselves more effectively when they are personally motivated and external standards are present. Accordingly, we further posit that (2) emphasizing self‐transcendence values (i.e., the stable motivational goal to consider others' welfare) and (3) acting in strong situations (i.e., the presence of external normative standards on appropriate behavior) buffer the SCD effect. Results from two realistic simulation studies show that SCD were related to actors' interpersonal justice and injustice behavior. Across both studies, different results patterns, and relationships with the other variables for justice and injustice emerged. Thus, although the stronger effect of SCD on injustice (vs. justice) was not generally supported, the finding suggests that adhering to and not violating interpersonal justice rules are indeed different from one another. In addition, SCD were less detrimental among actors with higher self‐transcendence values and when actors operated in strong (vs. weak) contexts. A three‐way interaction showed that especially among actors with low self‐transcendence values, who act in weak contexts, SCD provoked injustice. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.

Some positivity per day can protect you a long way: A within-person field experiment to test an affect-resource model of employee effectiveness at work

ABSTRACT We expand research on the daily dynamics of employee effectiveness at work by integrating the core tenets of the Conservation of Resources Theory with the Broaden-and-Build Theory of positive emotions. Specifically, we argue that daily work-related self-control demands as a stressor deplete employees’ regulatory resources, which in turn impair work effectiveness because employees try to protect their remaining regulatory resources. Assuming that positive affect can replenish regulatory resources, we further propose that enhancing positive affect can alleviate employees from entering a resource preservation state on days with high self-control demands at work. We examined this integrated affect-resource model in a within-person field experiment over 12 workdays with 85 employees who received a daily text- or video-based positivity micro-intervention. Consistent with our predictions, the adverse effects of noon self-control demands on afternoon measures of employee effectiveness (work engagement, organizational citizenship behaviour, and creativity) via regulatory resource availability were attenuated on days when participants experienced positive affect, which was enhanced through the positivity micro-intervention. We discuss theoretical implications for the regulatory resource literature, methodological implications for the growing body of research on within-person field experiments in organizational research, and practical implications for introducing short interventions in daily working life.

How Can We Cope with Self-Control Demands and Enhance Proactive Vitality Management? The Role of Leisure Crafting and Supervisor Recreational Sports Support

Studies have reported negative effects of self-control demands on the service-oriented physical and mental well-being of employees. Based on the stressor-detachment model and conservation of resources theory, the present study examined how and when the interplay between leisure crafting and perceived supervisor recreational sports support can lead self-control demands employees to exhibit proactive vitality management. A total of 212 employees completed surveys at three time points over six months. The results indicated that leisure crafting mediated the relationship between employees’ self-control demands and proactive vitality management. Perceived supervisor recreational sports support was shown to strengthen the relationship between leisure crafting and proactive vitality management. Furthermore, we demonstrated a moderated mediation model in which self-control demands, under employees’ perceived supervisor recreational sports support, did not motivate employees to engage in additional leisure crafting; rather, these demands enhanced employees’ leisure resources, which in turn promoted their proactive vitality management.

How strategies of selective optimization with compensation and role clarity prevent future increases in affective strain when demands on self-control increase: Results from two longitudinal studies.

In modern working environments effective strategies for regulating goal-directed behavior and allocating and investing limited resources (e.g., selection, optimization, and compensation [SOC] strategies) should enable employees to cope up with job demands that require volitional self-regulation, thereby preventing strain over time. However, theoretical insights suggest that the beneficial impact of SOC strategies on psychological health depends on the degree to which employees experience clarity in their job role. To understand how employees stabilize their psychological health when demands increase over time, I examine interaction effects of changes in self-control demands (SCDs), SOC strategies and role clarity at an earlier point in Time on changes in affective strain in two longitudinal samples from different occupational and organizational settings (international private bank: N = 389; heterogenous sample: N = 313, 2 year lag). In line with recent conceptualizations of chronic forms of distress, affective strain involved emotional exhaustion, depressive symptoms, and negative affect. In support of my predictions, structural equation modeling revealed significant three-way interactions of changes in SCDs, SOC strategies and role clarity on changes in affective strain in both samples. In particular, the positive relationships between changes of SCDs and changes in affective strain were jointly buffered by SOC strategies and role clarity. The present findings offer implications for stabilizing well-being when demands increase over long time periods. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Teacher Support Matters: The Effect of Self-Control Demands on Safety Behavior of Vocational High School Students in China.

The safety behavior of vocational school students is worth noting. The current study is aimed to examine the effect of self-control demands on safety behavior. Drawing on the Self-Control Resource Model, we predict that self-control demands have a negative effect on safety behavior through ego depletion and perceived teacher support moderates the link among self-control demands, ego depletion, and safety behavior. A two-wave survey was conducted and 285 vocational students participated in our study. Mediation and moderated mediation modeling analyses were carried out. Results showed that ego depletion fully mediated the link between self-control demands and safety behavior. Moreover, perceived teacher support moderated the relationship between self-control demands, ego depletion and safety behavior; for students who perceived high levels of teacher support, the negative effect of self-control demands on safety behavior via ego depletion was insignificant, while for students who perceived low levels of teacher support, their negative effect was significant. The present study clarifies the effects of self-control demands on safety behavior through the resource depletion process and highlights the importance of teacher support in buffering the negative effect of self-control demands on workplace safety. Enhancing safety management, engaging in a resource recovery activity, and providing teacher support training are effective ways to maintain high levels of workplace safety.

Stop and go, where is my flow? How and when daily aversive morning commutes are negatively related to employees' motivational states and behavior at work.

Despite convincing evidence about the general negative consequences of commuting for individuals and societies, our understanding of how aversive commutes are linked to employees' effectiveness at work is limited. Drawing on theories of self-regulation and by extension a conservation of resources perspective, we develop a framework that explains how an aversive morning commute-a resource-depleting experience characterized by interruptions of automated travel behaviors-impairs employees' immersion in uninterrupted work (i.e., flow), which in turn reduces employee effectiveness (i.e., work engagement, subjective performance, and OCB-I). We further delineate theoretical arguments for daily self-control demands as a boundary condition that amplifies this relation and propose the satisfaction of employees' basic needs as protective factors. Two diary studies across 10 workdays each (Study 1: 53 employees, 411 day-level data points; Study 2: 91 employees, 719 day-level data points) support most of our hypotheses. Study 1 demonstrates that daily aversive morning commutes negatively affect employees' daily work engagement through lower levels of flow experiences, but only on days with high impulse control demands. In addition, we find initial support that employees' general autonomy and competence needs satisfaction attenuate this interaction. Study 2 rules out alternative mechanisms (negative affect and tension), demonstrates ego depletion as an additional mediator of the relation between aversive morning commutes and work effectiveness, and replicates the hypothesized three-way interaction for daily competence need satisfaction. We critically discuss the findings and reflect on corporate interventions, which may allow people to more easily flow to and at work. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Job crafting promotes internal recovery state, especially in jobs that demand self-control: a daily diary design

BackgroundResearch on how employees recover from work has focused primarily on recovery during non-work hours (external recovery) rather than recovery during work hours (internal recovery). Using the conservation of resources theory as a conceptual framework, we tested whether job crafting promotes an internal recovery state, and examined the processes that explain this association.MethodsUsing the daily diary method, 120 full-time employees provided information before and after work for 5 days by rating job crafting, ego depletion, self-control demands at work, fatigue and vigor.ResultsThe results of multilevel modeling showed that after controlling for employees’ fatigue and vigor before work, daily job crafting predicted significantly better internal recovery (greater vigor and lower fatigue at the end of workday), and this association was mediated by lower ego depletion. The links between job crafting and internal recovery were stronger for employees with high self-control demands at work.ConclusionsThis study extends recovery research by examining internal recovery as well as job crafting as its antecedent. Further, the present study suggests that managers may consider encouraging and offering job crafting interventions for employees to achieve internal recovery state.

A Within-Person Field Experiment to Test an Affect-Resource Model of Employee Effectiveness at Work

We expand research on the daily dynamics of employee effectiveness at work by integrating conservation of resources theory with a broaden-and-built perspective on positive emotions. Specifically, we expect that on days with high work-related self-control demands, employees experience regulatory resource depletion, which makes them less effective at work because they enter a resource preservation mode. Recognizing that positive affect replenishes employees’ regulatory resources and thereby serves as a signal to approach challenges, we further propose that increasing positive affect can prevent employees from conservation of regulatory resources after dealing with high self-control demands. To test our integrated affect-resource model, we developed a daily micro-intervention that induces positive affect and tested it in a within-person field experiment (daily diary study design) over 12 workdays with 85 employees. Consistent with our predictions, the adverse effects of morning self-control demands on afternoon measures of employee effectiveness (work engagement, organizational citizenship behavior, creativity) via regulatory resource availability was attenuated on days when participants experienced increases in positive affect due to a text- or video-based positive affect intervention. This was not the case on days when a control condition was administered to participants. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of our affect-resource model.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Conduct Problems: The Role of Self-Control Demands.

We tested within- and between-person effects of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms on conduct problems and alcohol intoxication via self-control demands using multilevel structural equation modeling in a longitudinal burst-design study of 251 U.S. veterans who participated in the recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. We theorized that experiencing PTSD symptoms engenders efforts to regulate mood, control thoughts, and inhibit or control behavior that is taxing to the individual (i.e., it places demands on self-control) and hypothesized that this process results in subsequent deficits in regulatory control that manifest in heightened intoxication and conduct problems associated with PTSD. At the within-person level, daytime PTSD symptoms, IRR = 1.09, and self-control demands, IRR = 1.12, exhibited within-person associations with nighttime conduct problems over and above nighttime intoxication. Consistent with our hypothesis, daytime increases in self-control demands mediated the associations between daytime PTSD symptoms and subsequent nighttime conduct problems. The indirect effect between daytime PTSD symptoms and nighttime intoxication via self-control demands was nonsignificant. At the between-person level, self-control demands mediated the associations between PTSD symptoms and conduct problems; however, the expected between-person associations with intoxication were nonsignificant. Drinking behavior is related to but cannot fully account for various difficulties in psychosocial functioning associated with PTSD. The present results suggest that dysregulated behavior may, ironically, stem from individuals' concerted efforts to control and manage overwhelming symptoms. Self-control demands may be a common factor that accounts for a broad range of functional impairments associated with PTSD.

How Does Trait Self-Compassion Benefit Self-Control in Daily Life? An Experience Sampling Study

This experience sampling study examined the roles of trait self-compassion in everyday self-control. Specifically, this study examined whether trait self-compassion influences people’s self-efficacy in handling difficult self-control demands, and subsequently, their self-control success. The participants were asked to respond to five random signals per day for seven consecutive days. When responding to each signal, they first indicated if they had exerted self-control over the past 30 min and, if yes, reported their momentary self-control experiences such as perceived difficulty, self-efficacy, and success. Trait self-compassion was measured 1 week before the experience sampling phase. A total of 1725 self-control episodes from 115 college students were analyzed. No main effects of trait self-compassion on self-control difficulty, self-efficacy, and success were observed. Nevertheless, trait self-compassion interacted with perceived difficulty in predicting self-efficacy. Specifically, perceived difficulty was associated with reduced self-efficacy, only among individuals low in trait self-compassion. Self-compassionate people appeared to be better at protecting self-efficacy when dealing with difficult self-control tasks. The findings provide nuanced views on how trait self-compassion may be beneficial to self-control in everyday life.

When is Proactive Behavior Perceived as Depleting?

Many organizational scholars emphasize the utility of proactive behavior because it contributes to performance without putting too much strain on employees. However, recently scholars suggested examining negative consequences of proactive behavior. Following this suggestion, we examine depletion perceptions as one negative consequence of daily proactive behavior. Further, we also focus on identifying conditions in daily work contexts under which proactive behavior may be associated with depletion perceptions, namely low job control and high self-control demands. We analyzed data from 141 employees in a two-week diary study with three daily measurement points. We consider lagged effects by investigating paths from the morning and the afternoon to depletion perceptions at midday and the end of work. Multilevel modeling showed that proactive behavior in the afternoon is negatively related to depletion perceptions at the end of work. However, when daily job control was low, proactive behavior in the morning was positively related to depletion perceptions at the end of work. Daily self-control demands did not moderate the relationship between proactive behavior and depletion perceptions. Findings put the utility of proactive behavior in perspective and point to its dangers. Moreover, the study underscores the importance to consider time-lagged effects when investigating energetic processes.

On Your Mark, Get Set, Self-Control, Go: A Differentiated View on the Cortical Hemodynamics of Self-Control during Sprint Start.

Most sports are self-control demanding. For example, during a sprint start, athletes have to respond as fast as possible to the start signal (action initiation) while suppressing the urge to start too early (action inhibition). Here, we examined the cortical hemodynamic response to these demands by measuring activity in the two lateral prefrontal cortices (lPFC), a central area for self-control processes. We analyzed activity within subregions of the lPFC, while subjects performed a sprint start, and we assessed if activation varied as a function of hemisphere and gender. In a counterbalanced within-subject design, 39 participants (age: mean (M) = 22.44, standard deviation (SD) = 5.28, 22 women) completed four sprint start conditions (blocks). In each block, participants focused on inhibition (avoid false start), initiation (start fast), no start (do not start) and a combined condition (start fast; avoid false start). We show that oxyhemoglobin in the lPFC increased after the set signal and this increase did not differ between experimental conditions. Increased activation was primarily observed in ventral areas of the lPFC, but only in males, and this increase did not vary between hemispheres. This study provides further support for the involvement of the ventral lPFC during a sprint start, while highlighting gender differences in the processing of sprint start-induced self-control demands.

Investigating Performance in a Strenuous Physical Task from the Perspective of Self-Control.

It has been proposed that one reason physical effort is perceived as costly is because of the self-control demands that are necessary to persist in a physically demanding task. The application of control has been conceptualized as a value-based decision, that hinges on an optimization of the costs of control and available reward. Here, we drew on labor supply theory to investigate the effects of an Income Compensated Wage Decrease (ICWD) on persistence in a strenuous physical task. Research has shown that an ICWD reduced the amount of self-control participants are willing to apply, and we expected this to translate to a performance decrement in a strenuous physical task. Contrary to our expectations, participants in the ICWD group outperformed the control group in terms of persistence, without incurring higher levels of muscle fatigue or ratings of perceived exertion. Improved performance was accompanied by increases in task efficiency and a lesser increase in oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex, an area of relevance for the application of self-control. These results suggest that the relationship between the regulation of physical effort and self-control is less straightforward than initially assumed: less top-down self-control might allow for more efficient execution of motor tasks, thereby allowing for improved performance. Moreover, these findings indicate that psychological manipulations can affect physical performance, not by modulating how much one is willing to deplete limited physical resources, but by altering how tasks are executed.

Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis: Knowing is Not Enough-The Crucial Role of Intention Formation and Intention Realization.

A large body of evidence supports the notion that patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) benefit from physical exercise. However, this research-based recommendation has been insufficiently translated into practice. In this commentary article, we highlight the psychological evidence for the intention–behaviour gap and discuss evidence-based recommendations for bridging this gap, with the aim to change behaviour in MS patients. It is accepted that psychological research distinguishes intention formation from intention realization and that these processes have to be considered when the aim is to enhance physical activity in MS patients. We suggest that the transtheoretical model of behaviour change is a useful and general framework for examining the process of intention formation and that a MS-specific perspective is more useful for realizing exercise intention. MS patients are faced with severe self-control demands that hinder the realization of sport and exercise goals. Specifically, MS patients experience fatigue, which imposes substantial self-control demands. Here, we suggest implementation intention as an effective tool that aids in counteracting deficits in intention realization (getting started and staying on track). We also note that research knowledge is not sufficiently translated into clinical practice. Based on an interdisciplinary approach we recommend that therapists of MS patients should be more aware of psychological theories of health behaviour change and that they should use these to improve and optimize treatment approaches.