Selective Laser Melting Manufacturing Research Articles

Progress in the Study of Quality and Mechanical Properties of Selective Laser Melting Molded Parts

Abstract: Selective laser melting (SLM) is considered to be a widely promising additive manufacturing technology with the advantages of high machining precision, high manufacturing freedom, and short cycle time, which is widely used in aerospace, the integration of medicine, and industry, chemical, and other fields. The research progress on the temperature field, stress field, forming quality, and mechanical properties during the SLM manufacturing process is reviewed. The study aims to systematically analyze how SLM process parameters affect the temperature field, stress field, forming quality, and mechanical properties, and to discuss the importance of the selection of process parameters and performance regulation to achieve high-quality, highperformance metal parts. The effects of SLM process parameters on temperature field, stress field, surface roughness, densification, hardness, strength, and fatigue properties are analyzed and summarized. The importance of process parameters in the SLM forming procedure in the quality of formed components is emphasized, and conducting an in-depth study on the optimization and performance regulation of the process parameters is of great significance in achieving the high quality and performance of metal parts. With the rapid advancement of technology, the potential of SLM technology in terms of molding quality and mechanical performance has become increasingly significant, heralding significant breakthroughs. These potential breakthroughs will greatly promote the widespread application of SLM technology in various industries, thus more efficiently meeting the growing needs and expectations of industries such as petrochemicals, transportation, aerospace, nuclear energy, as well as food and medical sectors.

Phase-field based modeling and simulation for selective laser melting techniques in additive manufacturing

In this study, we develop a phase-field model to describe the solid–liquid phase changes, heat conduction phenomena, during the selective laser melting process. This model is based on the variational principle of minimizing the free energy functional. The proposed model integrates the phase-field equation and the energy equation, which are used to capture the dynamical behavior of the interfacial evolution. We use the semi-implicit Crank–Nicolson scheme and central difference to ensure second-order accuracy in time and space. The numerical scheme is unconditional energy stable. This paper rigorously proves the energy stability of the phase-field model of the Selective Laser Melting process, which confirms the numerical stability and the physical rationality of the solution. Various numerical experiments are performed to verify the robustness of our proposal model. This model can effectively simulate the energy transfer and shape structure changes of the products during the selective laser melting manufacturing process, which provides a reliable guarantee for predicting and optimizing the quality and performance of the selective laser melting process additive manufacturing process.

Selective laser melting manufacturing and heat transfer performance study of porous wick in loop heat pipe

Porous wicks, characterized by high capillary pumping force, lightweight, and excellent permeability, have been widely used in heat transfer. Currently, porous wicks are fabricated using powder sintering, porous foaming, and solvent volatilization techniques. However, there is the problem that the shape, size, and pore distribution of the porous structure are difficult to control. This paper proposes a novel 3D printing method to fabricate porous wicks using selective laser melting. The unit diameter and length are optimized to obtain a porous wick with high porosity and capillary pumping force. The effect of laser power on the surface morphology and porosity of the porous wick is investigated by modulating the 3D printing process parameters. The results show that the porosity of the porous wick can be regulated by changing the diameter and length of the pore unit. Decreasing the laser processing power and attaching unmelted solid-phase particles to the pore surface can further increase the porosity. When the laser power is 125 W, the unit diameter is 0.4 mm, and the unit length is 0.6 mm, the porous wick has strong capillary pumping force. The 316L porous material is modified by heat treatment to obtain super-hydrophilic properties. The porous wick is applied to the evaporator of the loop heat pipe, which significantly improves the heat transfer performance. When the heat load is 200 W, the evaporator temperature is 57.09 °C, and the thermal resistance is 0.025 °C/W.

The Influence of Additively Manufactured Specimen Thickness on Laser-Induced Ultrasonic Signals

Selective laser melting (SLM) technology, employed in metal additive manufacturing, is widely utilised to fabricate components with precise dimensions and excellent mechanical properties by melting powder layer by layer. Laser ultrasonic testing is anticipated to be an efficient method for in-line monitoring in the additive manufacturing (AM) process. The conversion of specimens from thin to thick during the SLM manufacturing process has an impact on the ultrasonic signals. This paper focuses on the influence of AM specimen thickness changes on ultrasonic signals. In the finite element analysis, the incremental specimen thickness was maintained at 0.2 mm, which was the initial value. As the specimen thickness increased sequentially, ultrasonic signals were obtained from different specimens. The results demonstrate that Lamb waves are generated when the specimen is thin, and the dispersive characteristics weaken as the thickness increases. The dispersive phenomenon diminishes significantly once the specimen thickness exceeds 1 mm. By employing the f-k method, calculated dispersion curves for various specimen thicknesses were obtained. After fitting the derived dispersion curve, a mapping relationship is established with respect to the specimen thickness. Consequently, the fitting coefficient of the dispersion curve can therefore be utilized to characterize the thickness of the additive manufactured thin specimen.

Effects of process parameters on microstructure properties of WE43 magnesium alloy by selective laser melting

Magnesium alloys have broad application in aerospace, biomedicine and automobile, et al. Selective Laser Melting (SLM) additive manufacturing of magnesium alloy can fabricate complex components with acceptable properties. However, the low evaporation heat of magnesium alloy at ambient temperature leads to vaporization instead of melting during the SLM forming process, posing significant challenges for achieving successful SLM fabrication of magnesium alloys. Hence, the objective of this paper is to analyze the impact of various process parameters on the distribution of macroscopic defects and the relative density during SLM additive manufacturing test of WE43 magnesium alloy samples. Additionally, it investigates the effect of forming parameters on the microstructure by examining molten pool morphology, grain size, and material composition. Mechanical property tests are conducted to establish correlations between relative density, microhardness, strength, and energy density in printed samples. Consequently, optimal SLM manufacturing parameters for WE43 magnesium alloy are determined as follows: laser power 200 W and scanning speed 800 mm/s. This study successfully achieves high-performance additive manufacturing of magnesium alloy materials.

Powder spreading process monitoring of selective laser melting manufacturing by using a convolutional Takagi–Sugeno–Kang fuzzy neural network

Powder spreading process monitoring of selective laser melting manufacturing by using a convolutional Takagi–Sugeno–Kang fuzzy neural network

Simulating multi-material specimen manufacturing from VZh159 and CuCr1Zr alloys via SLM method: Computational modeling and experimental findings

Manufacturing of multi-material products through layer-by-layer synthesis poses various challenges encompassing process parameter optimization, equipment calibration, and the mitigation of warping and internal stresses within the manufactured parts. The article investigates the feasibility of simulating the selective laser melting (SLM) process for manufacturing multi-material components, exemplified through specimens composed of the VZh159 nickel alloy and CuCr1Zr copper alloy. The study entails numerical simulations of the printing process, which were then validated against real specimens produced through SLM. Each test specimen was vertically divided into three parts: the top and bottom sections consisted of the VZh159 alloy, while the central part was composed of the CuCr1Zr alloy. Simulations involved using identical process parameters as employed in the printing process. Thermal and mechanical analyses for each part of the multi-material specimen were sequentially addressed, transferring the outcomes of the preceding analysis as initial conditions for subsequent calculations. The study concludes that while the obtained simulation results are indicative, they do not precisely capture the deformation observed in the specimens manufactured via the SLM method. The numerical values of deformations derived from simulation results slightly underestimate the actual deformations, attributed to limitations in the chosen calculation algorithms. For future utilization of numerical computer simulation in the SLM manufacturing of multi-material specimens, the study suggests the necessity of implementing a seamless, continuous simulation process without transitions between different parts of the specimen. This entails considering the entire manufacturing process without segregating sections, ensuring a comprehensive account of continuous deformation and stress accumulation throughout fabrication.

Finite element simulation of selective laser melting based on the layer thickness-dependent shrinkage ratio model

During selective laser melting (SLM), a powder undergoes a transition to a molten state and subsequently solidifies. Using a finite element (FE) model to investigate temperature evolution during SLM manufacturing is an efficient and reliable method for parameter and process optimization. However, factors such as the powder layer porosity and material evaporation induced by the laser energy input lead to volume shrinkage of each layer in SLM, which dramatically influences the precision of the FE model. This work investigates the shrinkage in the deposition direction of SLM-fabricated TC4 components with different powder layer thicknesses using a step-shaped substrate. According to the obtained shrinkage ratio, an FE model is used to establish a layer thickness-dependent volume shrinkage ratio. A comparison is made with the commonly used fixed 50% shrinkage ratio model. The study demonstrates that the shrinkage in the deposition direction of components fabricated by SLM using commercial TC4 powder is greatly affected by powder layer thickness. Introducing a layer thickness-dependent shrinkage ratio enhances the precision of the FE model, and it improves the predictive accuracy of the optimized process parameters.

Influence of Typical Technological Parameters on the Forming Quality of TA1 in Selective Laser Melting

As an emerging additive manufacturing technology with potential, selective laser melting (SLM) technology is one of the current mainstream additive manufacturing processes. Many complex conditions affect the quality of the SLM products, such as extremely short forming time, rapidly changing forming environment, and micron-level melting area. Numerical simulation and a printing experiment were used to study the influence of typical technological parameters on the forming quality of SLM products, where TA1 was used as the printing material. The typical technological parameters mainly considered laser power, laser scanning speed, hatch spacing, and laser energy density. Simulation analysis was based on the maximum temperature and the size of the molten pool, and the printing experiment was focused on the parameter design methods for typical processes and the forming quality of printed products. The results show the following: (1) An increase in laser power and laser energy density can significantly improve the forming quality. However, excessive input energy will lead to poor surface quality; (2) Scanning speed and hatch spacing need to be selected according to the size of the molten pool, which mainly influences the lap rate of the molten pool. The results of this study may provide some guidance for parameter setting and forming quality optimization in SLM manufacturing process.

Comparison of tensile properties and porcelain bond strength in metal frameworks fabricated by selective laser melting using three different Co-Cr alloy powders

Statement of problemThe selective laser melting (SLM) manufacturing technique has been widely employed to produce Co-Cr dental metal frameworks. The selection of Co-Cr alloy powders has the potential to influence the microstructure and tensile properties, consequently impacting the bond strength of the metal-porcelain. However, limited information is available regarding the effect of Co-Cr alloy powder on these properties when all other factors remain consistent. PurposeThe purpose of this in vitro study was to assess how the choice of Co-Cr alloys during SLM manufacturing influences the microstructure, tensile properties, and bond strength of metal-ceramic combinations. Material and methodsThree different Co-Cr alloy powders, Co-Cr-Mo, Co-Cr-Mo-W, and Co-Cr-W were selected in this study. The powder characteristics and chemical compositions were analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, respectively. Subsequently, 12×12×15-mm cube specimens, cylindrical tensile test specimens, and 25×3×0.5-mm metal strips were fabricated using the SLM technique. Microstructural investigations of the cube specimens were conducted after metallographic preparation using SEM. The cylindrical tensile specimens (n=8) from each composition were subjected to tensile tests at a deformation rate of 0.5 mm/min. Following the application of ceramic to the metal specimens (n=10) in each group, the strength of the metal-ceramic bond was evaluated through a 3-point bend test conducted at a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min. Mechanical properties obtained from the tensile tests and bond strength values were statistically analyzed using a one-way ANOVA and Tukey post hoc comparison tests (α=.05). ResultsMelt pool boundaries, columnar and equiaxed grains, and precipitates were observed in the microstructures of 3 different alloys produced by SLM. The Co-Cr-Mo-W alloy had more uniformly dispersed and finely distributed precipitates compared with other alloy compositions. The Co-Cr-Mo-W alloy had exhibited the highest yield strength (1068.0 ±41.2 MPa) and ultimate tensile strength (1263.4 ±10.7 MPa) while showing the lowest ductility under the tensile tests (6.1 ±0.9%) among all 3 alloys. Significant differences in the tensile mechanical properties were observed in the alloys except between the yield strength of the Co-Cr-Mo and Co-Cr-W alloys. The highest elongation (8.9 ±1.2%) was seen in the Co-Cr-Mo alloy. However, no significant differences were detected regarding the bond strength of all 3 groups (P>.05). The mean bond strength values were approximately 42 MPa for all the alloys. ConclusionsThe results indicate that the selection of different Co-Cr alloy powders used in SLM production may influence both microstructure and tensile properties. However, the strength of the metal-ceramic bond of Co-Cr alloys remained unaffected by this selection.

Experimental investigation on selective laser melting additive manufacturing of non-ferromagnetic heterogeneous material based on TiNi alloy with Ta coating

In order to manufacture non-ferromagnetic heterogeneous material by Selective Laser Melting (SLM), it is necessary to solve the separation problem of non-ferromagnetic mixed powders after SLM forming. This research presents how to resolve this problem using TiNi/Ta mixed powders by ultrasonic vibration screening method and the analysis of SLM manufacturing experiment for non-ferromagnetic heterogeneous material. The purity of TiNi and Ta powders after separation could reach 99.7087%wt% and 98.8501wt% respectively, which both reached a relatively high purity. A TiNi alloy sample with Ta coating and TiNi/Ta gradient transition was manufactured successfully by SLM. The material interface of the sample achieves metallurgical bonding, and the color of the sample profile shows a gradient transition. The EDS analysis shows that the material composition changes from Ta ->Ta/TiNi gradient ->TiNi from surface to inside of the sample. The Ta coating contains over 92.5wt% Ta, and the TiNi matrix contains over 98.69wt% TiNi. Along the powder laying direction, it is difficult to clean the small powder near the solid-powder or solid-solid interfaces made of two different materials, which causes micro polluted areas near the interfaces. This study also provides a new method for integrated manufacturing of TiNi alloy part with Ta coating.

High-strength Fe32Cr33Ni29Al3Ti3 fabricated by selective laser melting

Additive manufacturing of high entropy alloys (HEAs) has attracted increasing interest. A high-strength Co-free HEA with eutectic structure was developed using selective laser melting (SLM) technology in this work. This material shows excellent mechanical properties over a wide temperature range, from 25 °C to 500 °C, owing to its ultra-fine eutectic cellular structure with BCC phase wrapped by FCC phase. Specifically, the Co-free HEA exhibits a room temperature tensile strength exceeding 1200 MPa, and a yield strength of more than 880 MPa. The strength results of this Co-free HEA represent a significant improvement compared to other Co-free HEAs or middle entropy alloys (MEAs) manufactured using SLM. Given their low cost, Co-free HEAs are highly promising for commercial large-scale applications, and this research suggests that this high-strength Co-free HEA with eutectic structure may have particular value in SLM manufacturing mold applications.

Optimization of Sandblasting to Improve the Surface Finish of 17-4PH Parts Manufactured by SLM Using Different Laser Scanning Strategies

Great advances have emerged in recent years around additive manufacturing techniques, with an increasing number of different materials (polymers, ceramics, metals). However, metal part manufacturing has always been one of the most demanded in engineering. That is due to its ability to create final functional parts with good mechanical properties. One of the most widely used technique is Selective Laser Melting (SLM). The SLM process uses a laser power source to selectively melt metal powder layer by layer. Typically, this manufacturing technique requires mechanical post-processing operations, not only to split the parts from the build-plate, but also to improve the mechanical properties and surface finish of parts or the dimensional accuracy of specific regions to ensure assembly and interchangeability. In particular, sandblasting is a method of mechanical abrasion cleaning commonly used and very useful for improving the surface topology of SLM printed parts. Besides, the laser scanning strategy used in this additive manufacturing process influences the surface quality of parts. Therefore, in this work, the sandblasting post-process has been optimized for surface roughness improving in parts printed using the most common laser scanning strategies (normal, hexagonal, concentric). The role that sandblasting pressure and time plays in the surface quality of parts, indispensable to optimize this SLM post-process, has been evaluated. Thus, surface roughness of different specimens subjected to different sandblasting parameters has been measured to optimize both values related to the laser scanning strategy used in SLM manufacturing. The material used is 17-4PH stainless steel, an alloy that presents an excellent combination of high strength and good corrosion resistance, high hardness, good thermal properties, as well as excellent mechanical properties at high temperatures. This precipitation-hardened steel has important applications in the aerospace sector, chemical and petrochemical industry, energy sector, surgical instruments, high wear components, and general metallurgy, among others.

Selective LASER melting part quality prediction and energy consumption optimization

Selective LASER Melting (SLM) popularity is increasing because of its ability to quickly produce components with acceptable quality. The SLM process parameters, such as LASER power and scan speed, play a significant role in assuring the quality of customized SLM products. Therefore, the process parameters must be tuned appropriately to achieve high-quality customized products. Most existing methods for adjusting the SLM’s parameters use multiple inputs and one or two outputs to develop a model for achieving their desired quality. However, the number of the model’s input and output parameters to be considered can be increased to achieve a more comprehensive model. Furthermore, energy consumption is also a factor that should be considered when adjusting input parameters. This paper presents a multi-inputs-multi-outputs (MIMO) artificial neural network model to predict the SLM product qualities. We also try to combine training data from different sources to achieve a more general model that can be used in real applications by industries. The model inputs are LASER power, scan speed, overlap rate, and hatch distance. Moreover, four critical product quality measures: relative density, hardness, tensile strength, and porosity, are used as the model’s outputs. After finding a proper model, an energy optimization method is developed using the genetic algorithm in this paper. The objective of the optimization is to minimize the energy consumption of SLM manufacturing with a less compromised output quality. The results of this study can be used in the industry to decrease energy consumption while maintaining the required quality.

In-situ proces control strategies for selective laser melting

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing process that has been attracting the attention of researchers and developers in academia and industry over the last two decades. The SLM manufacturing process is capable of producing sophisticated industrial tools and geometrically complex parts in fewer steps (near net-shape), thus saving resources compared to subtractive manufacturing processes. However, the current industry-scale platforms for manufacturing metal parts via SLM do not sufficiently exploit online feedback control strategies. There is still significant potential for advanced process control which can enhance the overall performance of the system, as well as enable sophisticated manufacture, for example via active control of microstructure to enhance part performance in geometrically complex parts. This paper presents a comparison between the performance of three well-known industrial control strategies, to illustrate strengths and weaknesses in addition to addressing the key challenges and identifying some research opportunities in the field.

Surface integrity of SLM manufactured meso-size gears in laser shock peening without coating

The present work aimed to improve the surface integrity of the selective laser melting manufacturing (SLM) manufactured 10 mm sized meso gears using the unconventional Laser Peening without Coating (LPwC) technique. To accomplish LPwC on meso gears low energy in the range of 200 mJ to 1000 mJ at 10 Hz were applied underwater in the gear root and fillet gap generating significant surface compressive residual stresses (from +73 MPa to −298 MPa). Besides the surface, residual stresses, average surface roughness (Ra), arithmetical mean height (Sa) and parameters of the material ratio curve were also considered as a part of the study. Notable improvement was achieved in Sa, as it improved over 50 % while considerable improvement in Ra and the material ratio curve parameters has also been observed. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed that the void and porosity seen in the unpeened gears were filled. The electron backscatter diffraction analysis confirms the grain refinement in LPwC region up to 100 μm depth. It was observed that multifold dislocation occurs within the grain, and dislocation generates sub-grain. The sub-grain formation substantially inhibits further nucleation and crack propagation owing to an increase in grain boundary density. Such improvement justifies the set objectives, and the outcome of this research will pave a foundation to improve the overall performance of the micro/meso parts using the LPwC process.

Deep Learning Applied to Defect Detection in Powder Spreading Process of Magnetic Material Additive Manufacturing.

Due to its advantages of high customization and rapid production, metal laser melting manufacturing (MAM) has been widely applied in the medical industry, manufacturing, aerospace and boutique industries in recent years. However, defects during the selective laser melting (SLM) manufacturing process can result from thermal stress or hardware failure during the selective laser melting (SLM) manufacturing process. To improve the product’s quality, the use of defect detection during manufacturing is necessary. This study uses the process images recorded by powder bed fusion equipment to develop a detection method, which is based on the convolutional neural network. This uses three powder-spreading defect types: powder uneven, powder uncovered and recoater scratches. This study uses a two-stage convolutional neural network (CNN) model to finish the detection and segmentation of defects. The first stage uses the EfficientNet B7 to classify the images with/without defects, and then to locate the defects by evaluating three different instance segmentation networks in second stage. Experimental results show that the accuracy and Dice measurement of Mask-R-CNN network with ResNet 152 backbone can reach 0.9272 and 0.9438. The computational time of an image only takes approximately 0.2197 sec. The used CNN model meets the requirements of the early detected defects, regarding the SLM manufacturing process.

Electrochemical characterization of three types of Co-Cr based alloys manufactured by casting and selective laser melting according to ISO 10271

ObjectiveTo characterize the effect of elemental composition and manufacturing process on the electrochemical properties of Co-Cr-Mo, Co-Cr-W and Co-Cr-Mo-W alloys. MethodsSix Co-Cr based alloys were included in this study. All alloys are Co-Cr based alloys, classified in three different types according to their elemental composition. The first group has Mo as the third alloying element while the second one has W instead of Mo. The third one has both alloying elements. The groups are further divided by the manufacturing process (casting or Selective Laser Melting(SLM)). All groups were subjected to static immersion, open circuit potential, anodic scan, SEM/EDX analysis, static and cyclic tarnish testing according to ISO 10271 requirements. The ionic release was evaluated by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and the results were statistically analyzed by two way ANOVA and Tukey test (a=0.05). ResultsNo statistical differences were identified for Co-Cr-Mo alloy for all elements and their total ionic release between casting and SLM manufacturing processes, in contrast to significantly lower values for SLM groups for the other two groups. All groups tested demonstrated similar performance in OCP and AS testing while no gross elemental changes before and after AS were identified following EDX analysis. All alloys fulfilled the requirements of tarnish resistance ConclusionsThe ionic release is dependent on alloy type and manufacturing process while all groups were found to fulfill the requirements of international standards for ionic release, corrosion and tarnish resistance and thus an acceptable clinical performance is anticipated.

Design and Molding of Thyroid Cartilage Prosthesis Based on 3D Printing Technology

The modeling efficiency, matching, and biocompatibility are key factors affecting the surgical success of a personalized thyroid cartilage prosthesis. We performed three-dimensional reconstruction of a thyroid cartilage prosthesis by combining reverse and forward methods, and then completed the prosthesis design with total or partial resection using a parametric modeling method. Direct manufacturing was performed using selective laser melting (SLM) molding equipment and TC4 material. The structure of the completed implant unit was optimized. The results show good modeling effects for the thyroid cartilage prosthesis with either total or partial resection by the parametric modeling method. Good matching performance was achieved, with overlap suspension between the pillars that meets the requirements of SLM manufacturing. Additionally, the use of SLM molding to produce the thyroid cartilage prosthesis resulted in less powder adhesion on the surface and no obvious nodulation between the porous pillars, allowing the direct use of the prothesis after simple post-treatment. Overall, these results should facilitate the direct application of personalized implants.

Proposal of design rules for improving the accuracy of selective laser melting (SLM) manufacturing using benchmarks parts

PurposeAmong the different methodologies used for performance control in precision manufacturing, the measurement of metrological test artefacts becomes very important for the characterization, optimization and performance evaluation of additive manufacturing (AM) systems. The purpose of this study is to design and manufacture several benchmark artefacts to evaluate the accuracy of the selective laser melting (SLM) manufacturing process.Design/methodology/approachArtefacts consist of different primitive features (planes, cylinders and hemispheres) on sloped planes (0°, 15°, 30°, 45°) and stair-shaped and sloped planes (from 0° to 90°, at 5° intervals), manufactured in 17-4PH stainless steel. The artefacts were measured optically by a structured light scanner to verify the geometric dimensioning and tolerancing of SLM manufacturing.FindingsThe results provide design recommendations for precision SLM manufacturing of 17-4PH parts. Regarding geometrical accuracy, it is recommended to avoid surfaces with 45° negative slopes or higher. On the other hand, the material shrinkage effect can be compensated by resizing features according to X and Y direction.Originality/valueNo previous work has been found that evaluates accuracy when printing inwards (pockets) and outwards (pads) geometries at different manufacturing angles using SLM. The proposed artefacts can be used to determine the manufacturing accuracy of different AM systems by resizing to fit the build envelope of the system to evaluate. Analysis of manufactured benchmark artefacts allows to determine rules for the most suitable design of the desired parts.