Seismic Amplification Research Articles

Investigation of the earthquake-induced liquefaction and seismic amplifications after Pazarcık (Mw 7.7) and Elbistan (Mw 7.6) earthquakes

Investigation of the earthquake-induced liquefaction and seismic amplifications after Pazarcık (Mw 7.7) and Elbistan (Mw 7.6) earthquakes

Seismic Wave Amplification Characteristics in Slope Sections of Various Inclined Model Grounds

The collapse of slopes caused by earthquakes can lead to landslides, resulting in significant damage to both lives and structures. Seismic reinforcement of these slopes can protect social systems during an earthquake. In South Korea, where more than 70% of the land is mountainous, the stability of slopes is of paramount importance compared to other countries. While many seismic designs are based on peak ground acceleration (PGA), there is relatively little consideration given to the extent of PGA’s influence, and few studies have been done. This study aims to assess the seismic amplification of slopes with multilayers using a 1 g shaking table and verify the results through numerical analysis after confirming the impact of PGA at specific points. Typically, slope model experiments are conducted on single-layered ground models. However, actual ground conditions consist of multiple layers rather than a single layer, so a multi-layered model was created with different properties for the upper and lower layers. Two multi-layered ground models consisting of two layers were created, one with a flat ground surface and the other with a sloped surface. The properties of the two layers in each model were configured as a single layer to create the slope models. The peak ground acceleration (PGA) of the four ground models was compared, revealing that seismic wave amplification increases as it moves upward, and the amplification is even greater when transitioning from the lower to the upper ground layers, leading to different dynamic behavior of the slope. Through the contour lines, the influence of PGA was further confirmed, and it was found that approximately 60% of the PGA impact occurs at the topmost part of the slope on average. Analysis of the earthquake waves showed that the top of the slope experienced an average amplification of about 31.75% compared to the input motion, while the lower part experienced an average amplification of about 27.85%. Numerical analysis was performed using the ABAQUS program, and the results were compared with the 1 g shaking table experiments through spectral acceleration (SA), showing good agreement with the experimental results.

Seismic moment of local earthquakes in the central part of the Baikal rift by the coda envelope inversion

The article presents an estimation of scalar seismic moment by the coda envelope inversion of local earthquakes recordings in the central part of the Baikal rift zone. In addition to the earthquake source parameters, the method allows us to simultaneously estimate seismic energy loss and site amplification factors for frequency bands from 0.53 to 34 Hz. Because of the compromise between spectral source energy and site responses, we estimated amplification factors for used stations relative to the "UlanUde" (UUDB) reference site located in crystalline rock. In order to estimate intrinsic and scattering attenuation we used events recorded at three broadband seismic stations and epicentral distances between 40 and 120 km. The result suggests that intrinsic absorption is dominant over scattering attenuation in the central part of the Baikal rift zone for most frequency bands, but the seismic albedo B0, expressing the contribution of scattering to the total attenuation, showed variations from 0.23 to 0.6 for frequencies below 1 Hz, with mean B0 value 0.33. Attenuation and siteamplification factors were used to estimate the seismic moment and moment magnitudes Mw of local earthquakes. The resultant moment magnitudes exhibit a good agreement with routinely reported local magnitude (ML) estimates for the study area. The coda inversion estimates of seismic moment provide stable, unbiased moment magnitudes for events that are too small to be seen at teleseismic distances.

How water, temperature, and seismicity control the preconditioning of massive rock slope failure (Hochvogel)

Abstract. The anticipation of massive rock slope failures is a key mitigation strategy in a changing climate and environment requiring a precise understanding of pre-failure process dynamics. Here we exploit >4 years of multi-method high-resolution monitoring data from a large rock slope instability close to failure. To quantify and understand the effect of possible drivers (water from rain and snowmelt, internal rock fracturing, and earthquakes), we correlate slope displacements with environmental data, local seismic recordings, and earthquake catalogues. During the snowmelt phase, displacements are controlled by meltwater infiltration with high correlation and a time lag of 4–9 d. During the snow-free summer, rainfall induces accelerations with a time lag of 1–16 h for up to several days without a minimum activation rain sum threshold. Rock fracturing, linked to temperature and freeze–thaw cycles, is predominantly near the surface and unrelated to displacement rates. A classic Newmark analysis of recent and historic earthquakes indicates a low potential for immediate triggering of a major failure at the case site, unless it is already very close to failure. Seismic topographic amplification of the peak ground velocity (PGV) at the summit ranges from a factor of 2–11 and is spatially heterogeneous, indicating a high criticality of the slope. The presented in-depth monitoring data analysis enables a comprehensive rockfall driver evaluation and indicates where future climatic changes, e.g. in precipitation intensity and frequency, may alter the preconditioning of major rock slope failures.

Investigation of seismic response amplification effects of diverse multi-support earthquake excitations on cable-stayed bridges

This study addresses the critical need to understand the seismic behavior of cable-stayed bridges under Multi-Support Excitation (MSE) in order to mitigate earthquake-induced damage to these structures. The primary focus is on the investigation of response amplification phenomena and their seismic implications for cable-stayed bridges. Through a detailed comparative analysis of MSE and Synchronous Excitation (SE) across various structural locations, the study evaluates the impact of site-specific recorded ground motions of different earthquake categories. A pragmatic framework is developed to simulate realistic MSE ground motions for diverse earthquake scenarios, emphasizing the necessity of considering MSE in bridge design. The findings reveal a significant amplification of the design requirements due to antisymmetric mode excitation and increased tower and pier motions. The study also identified the need for in-depth analysis of cable-stayed bridges to address the increased vulnerability of tower-adjacent areas and to devise targeted reinforcement strategies of vulnerable components. These insights are critical for advancing seismic design practices and improving the resilience of cable-stayed bridges, contributing to safer urban infrastructure.

Mapping 1D seismic amplification effects in the range of periods of engineering interest based on geological data

Regional scale seismic hazard assessment including the effect of local seismo-stratigraphical conditions is a basic tool for seismic risk estimates. A novel physically based procedure is proposed for using geological maps to extensively estimate expected seismic amplification effects relative to spectral ordinates of main engineering interest (<0.8 s). Automatic GIS based analysis of geological maps, statistical data relative to the seismic/geotechnical properties of geological units and numerical modelling are combined to determine the probability distribution of expected amplification effects by accounting for uncertainty affecting the relevant parameters. To evaluate the feasibility of the proposed procedure, it has been applied to the Tuscany Region in Central Italy. Unbiasedness of outcomes has been tested by considering detailed microzonation studies available for the considered area. Results of the proposed approach could be easily implemented in extensive seismic risk analyses where detailed seismic microzonation studies are lacking.

Seismic amplification of Late Quaternary paleovalley systems: 2D seismic response analysis of the Pescara paleovalley (Central Italy)

Robust site characterization and ground response analysis require a thorough understanding of subsurface features, including geophysical properties and geometries of sediment bodies. Late Quaternary paleovalley systems, often overlooked in seismic hazard assessments, represent a potential threat due to their unconsolidated infill (with shear wave velocities <200 m/s) and sharp contrast with the adjacent substrate. Through an integrated approach that combined geophysical and stratigraphic data, we characterized the subsurface of the Pescara paleovalley system. Geostatistical interpolation of microtremor measurements enabled mapping resonance frequencies, highlighting abrupt changes and delineating the paleovalley boundaries. High-resolution core descriptions were then correlated with resonance frequencies, enabling the reconstruction of a 3D geophysical depth model of the buried paleovalley morphology. Furthermore, analyzing velocity profiles from down-hole tests led to the identification of five main seismic/stratigraphic layers within the valley fill. The geometry and facies architecture were reconstructed through a cross-section transversal to the paleovalley axis and then implemented into a 2D finite element model. Seismic response was computed, revealing significant amplification factors at frequencies closely matching the direct observations. Amplification factors peaked at frequencies between 0.9 and 1.1 Hz in the paleovalley center and up to 5.5 Hz towards the flanks, reaching a factor of 4.6. These findings suggest a notable increase in amplification amplitude compared to simpler geological contexts and emphasize the potential impact on common building types. Response spectra show strong amplifications in the paleovalley system, potentially leading to an underestimation of spectral accelerations compared to NTC18 guidelines. The comparisons of 1D and 2D modeling approaches revealed minimal differences, indicating that the generally flat geometry of the valley may not exhibit clear 2D effects. However, local subsurface stratigraphy strongly influences lateral changes in seismic response, emphasizing the importance of detailed subsurface knowledge for realistic seismic response estimates.

Research on semi-active vibration reduction of offshore wind turbine structure combined eddy current theory with tuned mass dampers

At present, the offshore wind power gradually shows a development trend towards the profound ocean with characteristic of larger capacity, higher tower and longer blades. Therefore, the offshore wind turbine (OWT) is more vulnerable to extreme loads and may lead to the negative influence of structural vibration safety. In this research, a new semi-active eddy current tuned mass damper (SEC-TMD) was proposed for the vibration control of OWT structures and its vibration reduction effect under multiple kinds of dynamic loads was also discussed. Firstly, taking one actual 3.0 MW OWT supported by bucket foundation as object, the SEC-TMD was designed based on the linear quadratic optimal control (LQR) algorithm and bounded Hrovat optimal control algorithm in order to obtain the optimal control force of structural vibration systems. The relationship between damping coefficient and magnetic conductivity spacing was further fitted to achieve variable damping control of SEC-TMD. Secondly, the theoretical model of 3.0 MW OWT structure installed with SEC-TMD was established and the effectiveness of the established theoretical model was verified through the comparison on modal analysis between the theoretical calculations and measured data identification. Finally, the vibration reduction effect of SEC-TMD on the measured OWT structure under wind-wave, seismic and vibration amplification conditions was analyzed and compared with the results calculated from the other passive dampers including EC-TMD and TLCD. It is shown that the maximum reduction percentage of peak value for vibration displacement and acceleration on the tower top can respectively reach 31.93 %, 44.11 %, 30.20 % and 54.57 %, 33.94 %, 31.75 % under three above conditions. Comparing with EC-TMD and TLCD, the better vibration reduction effect indicates that the proposed SEC-TMD has good engineering application value for the vibration suppression of OWT.

Shallow Structure and Seismic Amplification Effects in the Weifang Segment of the Tanlu Fault Zone Based on the Spectral Ratio Method

Abstract The Weifang segment of the Tanlu fault zone (TLFZ) is located in the central section of the TLFZ, eastern China, and has been identified as an earthquake gap zone. Previous studies in the region have mainly focused on the crustal velocity structure and anisotropy, with limited attention to the shallow near-surface structures. In this study, we analyzed the distribution of sediment thickness and evaluated the seismic amplification effects in the Weifang segment of the TLFZ using the horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) method and the standard spectral ratio (SSR) method. The data we used are from a dense array of 302 three-component seismometers deployed in 2017 for three months. The lowest peak frequency of HVSR indicates that the northwestern part of the study area exhibits relatively thicker sedimentary deposits, estimated to be 800–1200 m in thickness, consistent with both tomographic and geological studies. The SSRs are calculated from 43 regional and teleseismic earthquakes with respect to 12 reference stations. The results from SSR show strong amplification in the 0.2–2 Hz frequency range for sites on the northwestern part, and the amplitude can be up to 15 times larger than that of the bedrock site. We also find significant amplification effects as well as thick sedimentary layers at specific stations along the eastern branch of the TLFZ, suggesting a localized low-velocity zone along the fault. Our results also demonstrate that using the single-site seismic method can provide new constraints on the fine structure and site responses of the fault zone, which are important for seismic hazard assessment.

Definition and validation of a valley amplification factor for seismic linear response of 2D homogeneous alluvial basins

The paper presents findings from a parametric study analysing geometric (e.g., shape ratio, edge inclination) and stratigraphic factors (e.g. impedance ratio) influencing ground motion in trapezoidal valleys. The study involved 2160 visco-elastic analyses, considering 180 2D models with diverse shapes and soil properties, undergoing 12 synthetic input motions. Analyses results showed that the motion at the valley centre increases with both shape and impedance ratios, while it is independent of the edge slope; on the other hand, the maximum amplification at the edges depends on their inclination and on the impedance ratio, while it is independent of the valley shape. The position and size of the zone of maximum amplification at the edges depend on all the previous parameters. A valley amplification factor (VAF) is introduced to quantify spectral acceleration increase due to 2D effects. Closed-form equations are proposed to evaluate VAF based on valley properties. The proposed VAF is then applied to predict seismic amplification in two central Italian valleys, providing results well-comparable to those obtained from 2D numerical analyses. The described approach can be easily implemented into codes of practice as a conservative design tool to estimate 2D amplification along the surface of ‘shallow valleys’ subjected to moderate seismic actions.

Nationwide frequency-dependent seismic site amplification models for Iceland

Seismic wave amplification due to localized site conditions or site-effects, is an important aspect of regional seismic hazard assessment. In the absence of systematic studies of frequency-dependent site-effects during strong Icelandic earthquakes, various local site proxies of large-scale studies in other seismic regions have been used and/or proposed for application in Iceland. Recently, however, earthquake site-effects were rigorously quantified for 34 strong-motion stations in Southwest Iceland for the first time and correlated to distinct Icelandic geological units of hard rock, rock, lava rock, and sedimentary soil. These units are prevalent throughout Iceland and in this study therefore, we present 1) nationwide maps of proxies (e.g. slope, Vs30, geological units) that may contribute to a better estimation of site effects and associated, 2) frequency-dependent site-amplification maps of Iceland relative to the median ground-motion prediction of Rahpeyma et al. (2023) [55]. We particularly focus on the two transform zones of the country, on the basis of digital elevation models and detailed geological maps. Specifically, the frequency-dependent site factors for each geological unit are presented at 1, 2, 5, 7, 10–30 Hz, and PGA. Finally, for comparison, we generate site amplification maps based on recent large-scale models developed in other seismic regions and/or applied in other studies (e.g., ESRM20) as well as various site proxies they are based on (e.g., geology- and slope-based inferred VS30, geomorphological sedimentary thickness). We compare site-proxy maps and amplification maps from both Icelandic and large-scale, non-Icelandic, models. Specifically, neither spatial patterns nor amplification levels in either proxy or amplification maps from large-scale non-Icelandic studies resemble those observed from local quantitative strong-motion research as presented in this study. We attribute the discrepancy primarily to the young geology of Iceland and its formation history. Additionally, this study compares model performance across frequencies by assessing the bias of model predictions against empirical site amplifications in the South Iceland Seismic Zone, accounting for site-to-site variability of residuals indicating the superior performance of the local amplification model. The results presented in this study now allow a more informed estimation of earthquake ground motion amplitudes on various geological units that are expected to result in more reliable and information-based seismic hazard estimates in Iceland.

Performance of Different ANNs in Microtremor H/V Peak Classification

Abstract The microtremor horizontal-to-vertical (H/V) technique is extensively used to both assess the seismic amplification potential of soils and, in combination with other surface wave-based techniques, to reconstruct the near-surface seismic stratigraphy. The H/V peak frequencies are traditionally interpreted in terms of soil resonances, and, in this case, they are assigned a “stratigraphic origin.” However, not all H/V peaks mark subsoil resonances, and some of them have “anthropic” or “artefactual” origin. Recognizing the nature of H/V peaks should be mandatory before any stratigraphic interpretation. Nonetheless, this problem is not given the attention it deserves. Because this classification is not easy to achieve using standard statistical techniques, we decided to train two supervised neural networks: a traditional artificial neural network using a set of input values extracted from the individual (horizontal and vertical) microtremor spectra and a convolutional neural network working on images of the microtremor spectra. The nets were trained on an Italian dataset and tested on a U.S. dataset, collected by different operators and with different instruments. Both the nets achieved a classification accuracy of ∼90%; however, the convolutional one showed a greater generalization capability compared to the traditional one. Such machine learning algorithms can be useful tools to discriminate the origin of H/V peaks, complementing the traditional SESAME guidelines, which do not go into much detail on this topic.

Seismic vulnerability distribution of the earthquake prone area in Central Aceh

Abstract Central Aceh is known as an earthquake-prone area due to the presence of the Sumatra Fault and secondary fault crossing the area resulting the M 6.1 earthquake in 2013. The objective of the research is to investigate seismic vulnerability of Central Aceh. Microtremor observations were conducted at 25 locations in Central Aceh analysed using the Horizontal to Vertical Spectral Ratio (HVSR). Seismic amplification is represented by the maximum values of H/V. The dominant frequency f0 representing the sediment thickness was obtained when the H/V curve is maximum. The frequency values ranged from 14.9 to 25.9 Hz, and the seismic vulnerability values varied from 0.02 to 3.1. The top soil consists of thin layers of sedimentary material dominated by tertiary rocks. The rocks are classified as Type IV and Class I based on the dominant frequency values. This result is consistent with the geology, consisting of sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Areas with a seismic vulnerability value &gt; 1.0 is considered to have a high risk of earthquake damage because they are likely to experience earthquake amplification. Areas with seismic vulnerability value &gt; 1.0 are found in West Aceh and the Geureudong volcano area.

Geophysical Investigation and 3D Modeling of Bedrock Morphology in an Urban Sediment-Filled Basin: The Case of Bolzano (Northern Italy)

Bedrock mapping is essential for understanding seismic amplification, particularly in sediment-filled valleys or basins. However, this can be hard in urban environments. We conducted a geophysical investigation of the sediment-filled Bolzano basin in Northern Italy, where three valleys converge. This study uses low-impact, single-station geophysical methods suitable for urban areas to address the challenges of mapping in such environments. A dataset of 574 microtremor and gravity measurements, along with three seismic reflection lines, allows for the inference of the basin’s deep bedrock morphology, even without direct stratigraphic data. The dataset facilitates a detailed analysis of the spatial patterns of resonance frequencies and amplitudes, revealing 1D and 2D characteristics of the resonances. Notably, 2D resonances predominate along the Adige valley, i.e., the deepest part of the basin with depths up to 900 m. These 2D resonances, which cannot be interpreted through simple 1D frequency-depth relationships, are better understood by integrating gravity data to develop a depth model. The study identifies resonance frequencies ranging from 0.27 to over 3 Hz in Bolzano, affecting different building types during earthquakes. Maximum resonance amplitudes occur at lower frequencies, specifically at 2D resonance sites, therefore primarily impacting high structures. The 2D resonances are directional, with the most significant amplification occurring longitudinally along the valley axes. The resulting 3D bedrock model aids in seismic site response modeling, hydrogeological studies, and geothermal exploration and provides insights into the geological history of the basin, highlighting the role of the Adige Valley as a major drainage pathway.

Seismic wave amplification in a weakly nonlinear two-layered soil deposit

Based on numerous observations, local soil site conditions can significantly affect the formation of seismic responses. In this paper, we examine seismic responses caused by shear waves propagating through a two-layered soil deposit. The aim of the research is to study the phenomenon of amplification of shear waves due to the resonant properties of the soil deposit and the nonlinear characteristics of partial layers, which are assumed to be the cubically nonlinear continuous media. The target problem relates to a nonlinear boundary value problem, the solution of which is carried out using a semi-analytical approach. According to the approach, the problem’s solution is sought using the method of separation of variables, while the solution to the corresponding spectral problem is derived in the form of a power series. Additionally, good agreement is shown between theoretical studies and numerical simulations. The developed approach allows one to evaluate the amplification factor for a nonlinear two-layered soil deposit and to detect changes in the shape of amplification factor profiles when the frequency of an incident wave on a rigid bedrock is varied.

Does VS30 reflect seismic amplification? Observations from the West Bohemia Seismic Network

The present study addresses verification of average seismic shear-wave velocity from the surface to a depth of 30 m (VS30) as a suitable proxy for a seismic amplification. For this purpose, we used instrumentally homogeneous and spatially dense seismic network WEBNET (West Bohemia Seismic Network), designed to monitor an intraplate earthquake swarm activity in the West Bohemia/Vogtland region (Czech Republic/Germany). Using a Multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) shear-wave velocity models and parameters VS30 and H800 (depth of Vs > 800 m/s) were obtained at 17 WEBNET sites. VS30 were compared with (i) H800 and (ii) determined bedrock densities. To understand the relation between VS30 and site amplification, VS30 values were correlated with amplitudes of two earthquakes: (1) Mw 6.4 Petrinja, Croatia (12/2020) and (2) Mw 4.2 SE of Vienna, Austria (03/2021) both recorded by the WEBNET. The correlation analysis examined four categories of seismic waves in nine frequency windows and described the relation between amplification and VS30 using newly defined regression model. The results show that for the regression model, the frequency window with the highest correlation is in the 1–3 Hz range, and this dependence is statistically best observed in the full wave record. The amplification generally decreases with increasing VS30. However, a large scatter in amplification within Eurocode 8 category B is observed. Based on the observations a new general approach is put forward to finely indicate the relation between amplification and VS30 and the use of other site proxies is discussed.

Assessment of Site Effects and Numerical Modeling of Seismic Ground Motion to Support Seismic Microzonation of Dushanbe City, Tajikistan

In the territory of Dushanbe city, the capital of Tajikistan, detailed geological and geophysical data were collected during geophysical surveys in 2019–2020. The data comprise 5 microtremor array measurements, 9 seismic refraction tomography profiles, seismological data from 5 temporary seismic stations for standard spectral ratio calculations, 60 borehole datasets, and 175 ambient noise measurements. The complete dataset for Dushanbe was used to build a consistent 3D geologic model of the city with a size of 12 × 12 km2. The results of the seismological and geophysical surveys were compared and calibrated with borehole data to define the boundaries of each layer in the study area. The Leapfrog Works software was utilized to create a 3D geomodel. From the 3D geomodel, we extracted six 12 km long 2D geological cross-sections. These 2D geological cross-sections were used for 2D dynamic numerical modeling with the Universal Distinct Element Code software to calculate the local seismic response. Finally, the dynamic numerical modeling results were compared with the amplification functions obtained from the seismological and ambient noise data analysis. The 2D dynamic numerical modeling results allowed a better assessment of the site effects in the study area to support seismic microzonation and the determination of local peak ground acceleration changes in combination with regional seismic hazard maps. In addition, our results confirm the strong seismic amplification effects noted in some previous studies, which are attributed to the influence of local topographic and subsurface characteristics on seismic ground motions.

Are the Italian microzonation level 2 abacuses applicable in the Friuli Venezia Giulia (Italy) plain? Comparison between the national abacuses and the numerically simulated amplification factors and between the derived elastic response spectra

Seismic shaking of an area is strongly affected by the local geology. The so-called local site effects must be considered for the estimation of seismic effects on structures and urban planning. Thus, the seismic microzonation is the process aimed at identifying and mapping the subsoil local response in a given area, usually at urban/municipality scale and in terms of ground shaking parameters and susceptibility to ground instabilities. In Italy, for areas that can be schematised as a 1D subsoil model (e.g. alluvial plain), a simplified approach is proposed to quantify the seismic amplification (amplification factor, AF). This approach consists of tables of correspondences, called seismic abacuses, available for the whole national area as well as for some regional territories, and derived for simplified subsoil models. In this work, the results of the comparison between the AF values retrieved from national abacuses applied in the Friuli Venezia Giulia (Italy) plain municipalities and those from 1D numerical simulations are presented. In general, the abacuses underestimate the local seismic site effects a part for sites with a shallow bedrock. No correlations/trends were identified between the AF derived from abacuses and those from numerical simulations. Moreover, considering the elastic acceleration response spectra, it emerges that in the 49.5% of the FVG analysed sites the abacuses approach, even though it underestimates the real seismic response, is a more suitable approximation compared to the soil class simplified approach proposed by the Italian regulation. Finally, what emerges is that the limit of 30 m, as indicated in the Italian regulation, to consider a deep or shallow bedrock seams underestimated, and the AFs are not correlated with the seismic bedrock depth when it is higher than 100 m.

Investigation of sediment thickness in the rammang-rammang maros karst area using microtremor method

The aims of this study were to analyze the value of dominant frequency and amplification, estimate the thickness of the sediment, and to evaluate the seismic vulnerability of the Rammang-Rammang Maros Karst Area. This work was carried out at the Rammang-Rammang Maros Karst Area, Salenrang and Bontolempangan Village, Bontoa District, Maros Regency, South Sulawesi. Microtremor data were analyzed using the Horizontal to Vertical Spectra Ratio (HVSR) method to obtain the H/V curve representing the dominant frequency and amplification values. The dominant frequency values were obtained in the range from 1.389 to 6.251 Hz. The amplification values were in the range from 0.455 to 3.944. The sediment thickness was obtained in the range from 18.521 to 88.029 m, and the seismic vulnerability was in the range from 0.040 to 5.761. High values of sediment thickness were obtained in riverbank areas, which indicated that the weathering that occurred was caused by weathering of limestone and sedimentation by rivers. Meanwhile, low sediment thickness values were obtained in karst hill areas, indicating that the weathering occurred due to the limestone dissolution process. Based on the seismic vulnerability and amplification, the Rammang-Rammang Maros Karst Area is in a relatively safe zone.

Investigation of Seismic Amplification on Soil–Structure Interaction Problems Based on a 3D DRM-RFEM Framework

Investigation of Seismic Amplification on Soil–Structure Interaction Problems Based on a 3D DRM-RFEM Framework