Secondary Psychopathic Traits Research Articles

Fast & furious: Rejecting the hypothesis that secondary psychopathy improves reaction time-based concealed information detection.

Deception, a complex aspect of human behavior, is inherently difficult to detect directly. A valid alternative involves memory detection, particularly through methods such as the Reaction-Time based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT). The RT-CIT assesses whether an individual possesses specific knowledge by presenting various probe (familiar) items amidst irrelevant (unfamiliar) items. The task-required "unfamiliar" response to probes may induce a response conflict. Resolving this conflict, by inhibiting the automatic "familiar" response, takes time and slows probe RTs-a phenomenon known as the RT-CIT effect. Notably, secondary psychopathy is characterized by disinhibition and impulsivity, traits which may hinder the ability to effectively manage experienced conflict. Therefore, we hypothesized that secondary psychopathy would be associated with an elevated RT-CIT effect. To investigate this hypothesized relation, we conducted a pre-registered study (n = 86, student sample), employing a novel CIT paradigm that incorporates no-go trials to assess response inhibition capacity. Psychopathic traits were measured using the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy (LSRP) scale, while the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) assessed impulsivity. The novel CIT paradigm revealed impressive detection efficiency. However, contrary to our expectations, we observed no significant correlation between the RT-CIT effect and secondary psychopathic traits (BF01 = 6.98). This cautiously suggests that while secondary psychopathic tendencies do not improve RT-CIT validity, they also do not compromise it. Although future investigations should explore more diverse contexts and populations, this tentative finding is reassuring and underscores the robustness of the CIT paradigm.

The Emotionally Sensitive Child-Adverse Parenting Experiences-Allostatic (Over)Load (ESCAPE-AL) Model for the Development of Secondary Psychopathic Traits.

Understanding and treatment of antisocial behavior have improved through efforts to subtype individuals based on similar risk factors and outcomes. In particular, the presence of psychopathic traits is associated with distinct etiological factors and antisocial behavior that begins early in life, is aggressive, persistent, and less likely to normalize with traditional treatments, relative to individuals low on psychopathy or its childhood precursor, callous-unemotional (CU) traits. However, important distinctions can be made within individuals with CU/psychopathic traits according to the presence of elevated anxiety symptoms and/or adverse childhood experiences, known as secondary psychopathy/CU traits. This paper provides a broad and brief overview of theory and empirical literature supporting the existence of secondary psychopathy/CU variants as a distinct subtype of childhood antisocial behavior. It outlines the Emotionally Sensitive Child-Adverse Parenting Experiences-Allostatic (Over)Load (ESCAPE-AL) model for the developmental psychopathology of secondary psychopathic/CU traits and discusses research and theory supporting this perspective. Future research directions for testing this conceptual model and its implications for assessing and treating high-risk individuals with secondary CU/psychopathic traits are discussed.

Primary and Secondary Psychopathic Traits: Investigating the Role of Attachment and Experiences of Shame

Primary and secondary psychopathic traits have been documented in the general population and previous research has shown their link to adult insecure attachment and shame. However, there has been a gap in the literature examining the specific role of attachment avoidance and anxiety, and experiences of shame in the expression of these psychopathic traits. This study aimed to explore the associations between the attachment dimensions of anxiety and avoidance, in addition to characterological, behavioral and body shame with primary and secondary psychopathic traits. A non-clinical sample of 293 adults (M age= 30.77, SD = 12.64; 34% males) was recruited and completed an online battery of questionnaires. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that demographic variables (age and gender) explained the largest variance for primary psychopathic traits, while the attachment dimensions (anxiety and avoidance) explaining the largest variance for secondary psychopathic traits. Characterological shame had a direct and indirect effect on both primary and secondary psychopathic traits. The findings highlight the need to examine psychopathic traits in community samples as a multidimensional construct, with a particular focus on also assessing attachment dimensions and shame subtypes.

Differences in emotional contagion, interpersonal relationships and social rewards in males and females: examining the links with primary and secondary psychopathic traits

AbstractIndividuals with psychopathic traits display low empathy and as a result they have difficulties maintaining meaningful relationships. Emotional contagion, the ability to automatically mimic others’ emotional states (facial expressions, movements), is a precursor of empathy that contributes to relationship quality and is impaired in individuals with psychopathic traits. The current study examines sex differences in primary and secondary psychopathic traits in a sample of 389 participants (Mage = 33.61; 241 females) and the association of these personality traits with romantic and peer relationships, susceptibility to negative (sadness, fear, anger) and positive (happiness, love) emotional contagion and social motivation factors. Hierarchical multiple regressions run separately in male and female participants, revealed different factors contribute to the maintenance of primary and secondary psychopathic traits. Findings infer different difficulties in social functioning (forming and maintaining relationships), regulating emotions, empathizing via emotional contagion, and motivating factors to engage socially, relate to primary and secondary traits, as well as differences in men and women. This research reflects the importance of investigating psychopathic traits heterogeneously in males and females, to better inform prevention efforts focused on hindering the development and maintenance of these personality traits.

Longitudinal Associations Between Primary and Secondary Psychopathic Traits, Delinquency, and Current Dating Status in Adolescence.

Many have examined the desirability and mate competition tactics of adults higher on psychopathy using cross-sectional data, but few have studied the longitudinal associations between the lower-order factors of psychopathy (e.g., primary and secondary psychopathy) with indices of mating behavior in adolescents. More work is also needed to unravel how psychopathic youth outcompete rivals for mates. Delinquency has long been associated with dating and sexual behavior in adolescents, which may help to explain the competitive success of youth higher in psychopathic traits in vying for mates. We used cross-lagged panel modeling with three waves of data from a randomly drawn sample of 514 Canadian adolescents who provided annual self-reports of primary and secondary psychopathy, delinquency, and dating involvement from Grades 10 to 12 (15-18 years of age). Constructs were temporally stable. Secondary psychopathy and delinquency had positive within-time correlations with current dating status in Grade 10. A cross-lagged pathway from delinquency to dating involvement was supported from Grade 10 to 11, which replicated from Grade 11 to 12. However, this effect was specific to boys and not girls. An indirect effect also emerged whereby secondary psychopathy in Grade 10 increased the likelihood of being in a dating relationship in Grade 12 via heightened delinquency in Grade 11.

Parenting by lying in Turkey: associations with negative psychosocial outcomes and psychopathy in adulthood

Parenting by lying—a practice whereby parents lie to their children as a means of emotional or behavioral control—is common throughout the world. This study expands upon the existing, albeit limited, research on parenting by lying by exploring the prevalence and long-term associations of this parenting practice in Turkey. Turkish university students (N = 182) retrospectively reported on their experiences of parenting by lying in childhood, their current frequency of lying towards parents, their present level of psychosocial adjustment problems, and their expression of psychopathic traits. The results found that recalling higher levels of parenting by lying in childhood was significantly and positively associated with both increased lying to parents as well as the expression of secondary psychopathic traits in adulthood. The novel findings uncovered in this paper highlight the potential long-term associations that parental lying to children may have on their psychosocial development in adulthood.

Primary and secondary psychopathic traits: The role of attachment and cognitive emotion regulation strategies

Insecure attachment has been linked with psychopathic traits however, the precise relationship between the avoidance and anxiety attachment dimensions and primary and secondary psychopathic traits needs further research. Furthermore, the use of cognitive emotion regulation strategies (CERS) in individuals with psychopathic traits has been increasing, however, little is known about the unique association of adaptive and maladaptive CERS in relation to primary and secondary psychopathic traits. This study aimed to explore the relationship between adult insecure attachment dimensions and CERS with both primary and secondary traits in a non-clinical sample of 338 adults ranging between 18 and 70 years of age (231 of which were females). Findings indicated that having an avoidant attachment, blaming others and positively reappraising situations contributed to the prediction of primary psychopathic traits, while putting into perspective was identified as a protective factor. In contrast, having an anxious attachment and catastrophizing arose as risk factors for secondary psychopathic traits. Findings highlight the need to evaluate psychopathic variants as heterogeneous constructs, as both attachment dimensions and CERS uniquely relate to primary and secondary psychopathic traits.

Associations Between Psychopathic Traits and Laboratory-Based Aggression: Moderating Effects of Provocation and Distraction.

There are two distinct combinations of psychopathic traits (primary and secondary) that have been proposed to be a function of unique cognitive-affective deficits. This study sought to use theories of psychopathy to understand the factors that exacerbate (i.e., provocation) and attenuate (i.e., distraction) aggression in individuals high in psychopathic traits in a controlled laboratory task. Male undergraduates, who scored across the range of primary and secondary psychopathic traits, completed the Taylor Aggression Paradigm (TAP; Taylor, 1967) under conditions of low and high provocation. Participants were also randomly assigned to either a distraction condition, in which they completed a distracting concurrent task, or a control condition, in which no such task was completed. Inconsistent with our prediction, results showed that regardless of condition, primary psychopathic traits were positively related to laboratory aggression. Consistent with our hypothesis, a positive association between secondary psychopathic traits and laboratory physical aggression was observed following high provocation among nondistracted participants; this association was significantly reduced among distracted participants. These results clarify the factors that contribute to aggression for individuals high in psychopathic traits and may provide directions for future intervention development.

Correlates of Social Cognition and Psychopathic Traits in a Community-Based Sample of Males.

Social cognition is the ability to identify, understand, and interpret mental states and emotions. Psychopathic traits are typically described in two ways; Primary: shallow affect, emotional detachment, and relationship difficulties, and Secondary Psychopathic Traits: antisocial traits, impulsiveness, and emotional dysregulation. People with high psychopathic traits tend to perform lower on measures of social cognition. This study investigated the relationship of social cognition (mentalising) to primary and secondary psychopathic traits in a non-clinical sample, and investigated the psychometric properties of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) Short Forms (A and B). A community-based male sample (N = 1,000; age range 18–78) was recruited through an online platform. Psychopathic traits were measured using Levenson, Kiehl, and Fitzpatrick's Self-Report Psychopathy Scale, and stratified into Primary and Secondary Psychopathic traits. Secondary validation of the RMET Short Forms was completed investigating scale reliability, and validity. Findings suggest excellent psychometrics in a large community cohort for the RMET Short Forms (A and B), with significant negative correlations on social cognitive performance and high self-report psychopathy. The item valence within the social cognitive measure (positive, negative, and neutral affect stimuli) was also examined, and correlated significantly with both Primary and Secondary Psychopathic traits. This study provides further validation of the RMET Short Forms (A and B), and adds to the literature on the scale by investigating performance on short-form specific valence. This study further suggests that in a non-clinical community sample of males, that higher psychopathic traits correlated significantly, and negatively, with social cognitive performance.

Attachment and parental relationships and the association with psychopathic traits in young adults

Recent research indicates an increase in the prevalence of psychopathic traits in the general population. Debate surrounding the influences of insecure maternal and paternal attachment relationships and their associations with psychopathic traits has been increasing; whereas focus on insecure maternal attachment was more prevalent, insecure paternal attachment has not been researched as much despite their similar impact. This study aimed to investigate the associations between the constructs of parent adult-child relationships and their associations with primary and secondary psychopathic traits in a non-clinical population of 211 young adults, ranging between 18 and 40 years of age. The role of attachment was assessed using the Relationship Scale Questionnaire and the Parent Adult-Child Relationship Questionnaire. The Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale was used to assess psychopathic traits. Findings indicated that individuals with dismissive and fearful attachments had higher scores of both primary and secondary psychopathic traits in contrast to secure attached individuals who scored low on these traits. Substantively, a relationship with fathers characterised by increased responsibility and control predicted higher scores on the primary and secondary psychopathic traits. Findings emphasise the significant overlap between both dismissive and fearful attachment and the prediction of psychopathic traits. Substantially relationships with fathers are stressed.

Longitudinal associations among primary and secondary psychopathic traits, anxiety, and borderline personality disorder features across adolescence.

The individual and societal burden of psychopathy warrants an investigation into identifying its early precursors and developmental course. Accordingly, we examined the longitudinal pathways between primary and secondary psychopathic traits, anxiety, and borderline personality disorder (BPD) features across adolescence. Participants included 572 Canadian adolescents (253 girls; aged 13.96 [SD = 0.37] in Grade 8; 70.6% Caucasian) who were assessed annually on five occasions (Grades 8-12) using the Antisocial Process Screening Device (psychopathic traits), the Behavior Assessment System for Children-2 (symptoms of anxiety), and the Borderline Personality Features Scale for Children (features of BPD). Autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals provided stringent tests of within-person cross-lagged associations, while controlling for sex, race/ethnicity, household income, and parental education. Results indicated that primary psychopathic traits were preceded by and predicted anxiety such that individuals who increased in primary psychopathic traits subsequently declined in anxiety, and vice versa. Results also indicated that BPD features were associated with secondary psychopathic traits and anxiety. Specifically, increases in BPD features were linked with increases in secondary psychopathic traits and anxiety. Our results suggest that even after accounting for between-person associations and other known correlates, the development of psychopathic traits is embedded within the development of emotional characteristics and personality features. This highlights areas for intervention in adolescence, particularly around the core, shared trait of impulsivity and anger. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

1, 2차성 정신병질 특성과 도구적 위반행동 및 반응적 위반행동 : 도덕적 정서 및 도덕적 이탈, 비윤리적 의사결정을 중심으로

It is argued that transgressions of primary psychopathy have instrumental purpose while transgression of secondary psychopathy have reactive features. This study compares and explains the psychological processes that primary and secondary psychopathy end up with transgressions in order to extend clinical implications of the heterogeneity of the two psychopathies. In order to do so, this study carries out Levenson’s Self-Report Psychopathy Scale, the Korean mechanisms of moral disengagement scale for adults, the moral emotions scenario scale (instrumental/reactive), and the unethical decision making scale (instrumental/reactive) on 712 male and female undergraduate students. Two research models, where moral emotions (instrumental/ reactive) and moral disengagement work between primary and secondary psychopathic traits and unethical decision making (instrumental/reactive), were used in this study; the results are as follows. In the research model 1, indirect effects of moral emotions and moral disengagement are identified in the relation between primary psychopathic traits and unethical decision making for instrumental purpose. In addition, an indirect effect of moral disengagement is identified in the relation between secondary psychopathic traits and unethical decision making for instrumental purpose. Meanwhile, in the research model 2, a direct effect as well as an indirect effect of moral emotions and moral disengagement is identified in the relation between primary psychopathic traits and unethical decision making by reaction. additionally, an indirect effect of moral disengagement is identified in the relation between secondary psychopathic traits and unethical decision making by reaction. This research suggests effective interventions for prevention, treatment and education for primary and secondary psychopathy.

Cardiac Autonomic Function and Psychological Characteristics of Heterosexual Female Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Physical Aggression.

Intimate partner violence is predominantly viewed as a social problem of men’s violence against women. However, a growing evidence base suggests an equal prevalence rate for male and female perpetrated intimate partner physical aggression. Moreover, female perpetrated intimate partner violence is often assumed to be reactive, yet there is limited evidence to support this notion. In this article, we describe the results of two studies that investigated the prevalence of female perpetrated intimate partner physical aggression, and its correlates in heterosexual female university students. The relationships of personality traits, resting heart rate, and heart rate variability (a correlate of vagal activity) were compared between females who did and did not report having engaged in intimate partner physical aggression. In Study 1, we found that 30.9% of participants reported enacting intimate partner physical aggression during the preceding 12 months. This finding suggests that a considerable number of undergraduate females aggress against their intimate partners. Perpetrators, relative to nonperpetrators, scored higher on secondary psychopathic traits. In Study 2, female intimate partner violence was shown to be associated with low resting heart rate and high heart rate variability. Perpetrators, relative to nonperpetrators, scored higher on psychopathic traits that index emotional resilience and unempathic tendencies, and reported increased proactive and reactive aggression. This raises the possibility that some incidences of female intimate partner physical aggression represent proactive aggressive acts. These findings also support the frequently found association between low resting heart rate and aggression, but raise the prospect that the reported aggressive acts reflect high heart rate variability and strong parasympathetic nervous system activity.

Adult Bullying and Primary and Secondary Psychopathic Traits: Insights from a Community Sample

ABSTRACTThis study aimed to: (a) comprehend the relationship between primary and secondary psychopathy variants and bullying behaviors in adults; (b) to test for mediation effects of the experiences of victimization in strengthening the bonds between bullying and psychopathy; and (c) to explore how far gender and psychopathic variants predict bullying. Results showed that psychopathy (both primary and secondary) and gender (male) significantly predicted bullying perpetrator behaviors. These same predictors were also significant in explaining total involvement with bullying; primary psychopathy displayed, however, better explanatory power. Being a victim of bullying also mediated the relationship between psychopathic variants and bullying perpetrating. The magnitude of the correlations between bullying and both psychopathic variants detected in this study were bigger than the average reported in studies with children and adolescents, which could inform about greater severity of these behaviors in adult life. Specifically, findings from regression analyses suggest that components of cold-blooded psychopathy could be driving the engagement of this sample with aggressive behaviors. Implications of these findings, along with limitations and directions for further research are discussed.

Primary and Secondary Psychopathic Traits and Unethical Decision Making: Mediating Effect of Moral Emotions and Moral Disengagement

본 연구는 1차성 정신병질과 2차성 정신병질이 상호 이질적인 장애임을 제언하는 선행연구 결과들을 근거로, 비윤리적 행동에 이르는 1차성 정신병질과 2차성 정신병질의 심리적 과정을 이해하는 것을 목적으로 하였다. 이를 위해 남녀 대학생 647명을 대상으로 자기보고식 정신병질 질문지(LSRP) 및 한국판 성인용 도덕적 이탈 척도, 도덕적 정서 시나리오 척도, 비윤리적 의사결정 척도를 실시하였다. 1, 2차성 정신병질 특성과 비윤리적 의사결정 간의 관계에 도덕적 정서와 도덕적 이탈이 매개하는 연구모형의 적합도를 검증하고, 이들 간의 직․간접효과를 확인하였다. 그 결과, 비윤리적 의사결정에 대한 1차성 정신병질 특성의 직접효과가 확인되었다. 또한, 1차성 정신병질 특성과 비윤리적 의사결정 간의 관계에 도덕적 정서와 도덕적 이탈의 간접효과가 확인되었다. 2차성 정신병질 특성과 비윤리적 의사결정 간의 관계에서는 도덕적 이탈의 완전매개 효과가 확인되었다. 마지막으로, 본 연구가 갖는 임상적 함의 및 제한점에 대해 논의하고 후속 연구의 방향을 제언하였다.

Examining the relationships between sub-clinical psychopathic traits with shame, guilt and externalisation response tendencies to everyday transgressions

Although many theories of psychopathy include reference to some form of emotional deficit, surprisingly little research has examined the relationships between psychopathic traits and important self-conscious moral emotions such as shame and guilt. The present study sought to examine these relationships in a sub-clinical sample, taking into account the important theoretical differences between the two emotions. Participants (N = 739) completed a measure of psychopathic traits and a measure of self-conscious affect style. Both primary and secondary psychopathic traits were found to be inversely related to guilt-proneness; however, the effect size was greater for primary psychopathic traits. Primary psychopathic traits were unrelated to shame-proneness, while secondary psychopathic traits were positively related to shame-proneness. Both primary and secondary traits were positively related to externalisation; however the effect size was greater for primary over secondary traits. The findings provide support for affective differences between psychopathy variants.

Sex differences between primary and secondary psychopathy, parental bonding, and attachment style.

Sex differences in primary and secondary psychopathic traits and behaviors are consistently evidenced, although less is known about the developmental trajectories of these differences and why they might arise. In this study (N = 362) we investigated whether men and women reporting higher levels of primary or secondary psychopathic traits differed in retrospective accounts of how cold and controlling both their mother and father were during childhood, and how anxious and avoidant they are about contemporary relationships. Primary psychopathic traits in men related to controlling mothers and avoidant attachment, whereas in women they related to uncaring fathers and both anxious and avoidant attachment. Secondary psychopathic traits in men were predicted by uncaring mothers and fathers, as well as anxious attachment, whereas in women, neither parental bonding nor attachment style were related. Results are discussed from an evolutionary, life history theory paradigm.

An effective way to deal with predators is to taste terrible: Primary and secondary psychopathy and mate preference

Despite their reputation for taking advantage of other people, previous research shows that psychopathic individuals are attractive for short-term relationships. Furthermore, individuals with psychopathic traits have been found to be attracted to other psychopathic persons in both short and long-term relationships. The current study (N=258), is the first to extend the investigation further by examining whether these findings pertain to the affective (i.e., primary) or behavioural (i.e., secondary) aspects of psychopathy, and if this varies according to sex. Using a series of personality profiles, we found that men and women evaluated individuals higher in primary or secondary psychopathic traits unattractive for both short and long-term relationships. However, those individuals higher in primary and secondary psychopathic traits found similar partners attractive in short and long-term relationships, and this was strongest in women higher in primary psychopathic traits for long-term relationships, and in women higher in secondary psychopathic traits for short and long-term relationships. Results are discussed from an evolutionary theoretical perspective.

Psychopathic traits are associated with reduced attention to the eyes of emotional faces among adult male non-offenders.

Psychopathic traits are linked with impairments in emotional facial expression recognition. These impairments may, in part, reflect reduced attention to the eyes of emotional faces. Although reduced attention to the eyes has been noted among children with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits, similar findings are yet to be found in relation to psychopathic traits among adult male participants. Here we investigated the relationship of primary (selfish, uncaring) and secondary (impulsive, antisocial) psychopathic traits with attention to the eyes among adult male non-offenders during an emotion recognition task. We measured the number of fixations, and overall dwell time, on the eyes, and the mouth of male and female faces showing the six basic emotions at varying levels of intensity. We found no relationship of primary or secondary psychopathic traits with recognition accuracy. However, primary psychopathic traits were associated with a reduced number of fixations, and lower overall dwell time, on the eyes relative to the mouth across expressions, intensity, and sex. Furthermore, the relationship of primary psychopathic traits with attention to the eyes of angry and fearful faces was influenced by the sex and intensity of the expression. We also showed that a greater number of fixations on the eyes, relative to the mouth, were associated with increased accuracy for angry and fearful expression recognition. These results are the first to show effects of psychopathic traits on attention to the eyes of emotional faces in an adult male sample, and may support amygdala based accounts of psychopathy. These findings may also have methodological implications for clinical studies of emotion recognition.

Examining relationships between facial emotion recognition, self-control, and psychopathic traits in a non-clinical sample

Although psychopathy is a low prevalence disorder, individuals with sub-clinical psychopathic traits have been shown to reside within the community. One account of psychopathy proposes that deficits in self-control play a causal role. Other theorists propose that psychopathy-related antisocial behaviour can be attributed to a constitutional deficit of empathy, resulting from an inability to interpret and respond to the affective cues of others. These theoretical perspectives may both be relevant if psychopathy is understood as a dimensional construct, with primary psychopathy the consequence of a neurological vulnerability to emotional deficits, and secondary psychopathy reflecting an environmental adaptation and subsequent failure of self-control. Using a non-clinical sample (n=479), this study examined the relationship between sub-clinical psychopathic traits, self-control and the identification of facial emotion. Both primary and secondary psychopathic traits were associated with reduced accuracy in identifying facial affect, with more pronounced impairments seen for primary psychopathy. While both primary and secondary psychopathic traits were found to be related to deficits in dispositional self-control, the effect was significantly greater for secondary psychopathy.