Secondary Oak Forest Research Articles

SECONDARY OAK FORESTS OF THE Primorye Territory AS A RESERVE OF RARE AND ENDANGERED VASCULAR PLANTS SPECIES

More than 60 species of rare and endangered vascular plant species are found in forests with oak. About 20 protected species grow in secondary oak forests adjacent to cities or settlements. The article provides information about the presence of rare plants in particular areas. Rare species are quite resistant to such anthropogenic influences as early spring fires, which oak forests experience almost annually. The greatest danger to the conservation of plant biodiversity is the cutting down of secondary oak forests for the construction of linear, industrial and civil objects.

Assessment of the mixed coniferousbroadleaved forest canopy disturbance induced by typhoon Maysak (2020) using drone-borne images near Vladivostok, Russia

We assess the impact of typhoon Maysak (2020) on the canopy structure of mixed coniferous-broadleaved forests with Abies holophylla, Pinus koraiensis and a complex of deciduous broad-leaved species and secondary oak forests of Quercus mongolica. The study was conducted in the experimental forest of the Botanical Garden-Institute FEB RAS. We classified the natural forest vegetation of the study area, created a high-resolution vegetation map, and assessed the damage from typhoon Maysak remotely using the ultra-high resolution images, obtained with an unmanned aerial vehicle. We found that the largest number and area of canopy gaps are associated with the conditionally primary coniferous-broadleaved forests, where Abies holophylla and Pinus koraiensis form the main canopy layer. The smallest number and area of gaps relate to the secondary oak forests.

Inter- and intra-specific phenotypic variation of ecological stoichiometric traits in a mixed-oak secondary forest in China

Ecological stoichiometry provides a framework for the balance and flow of elements between organisms and ecosystems. Elemental phenotypes have an important influence on the environmental adaptation and ecological evolution of plants. There have been few reports on inter- and intra-specific phenotypic variations of ecological stoichiometric traits for congeneric species in a mixed forest although such variations are well- documented at the species level at global, regional and local scales. In this study, total carbon (TC), nitrogen (TN), phosphorus (TP) and potassium (TK) were measured in leaves and the elemental phenotypes were statistically analyzed in four species of oaks—Quercus fabri, Q. serrata var. glandulifera, Q. acutissima and Q. variabilis—in a mixed-oak secondary forest in Yushan, Jiangsu, China. The average element concentrations in the four oak species were not relatively higher than previously reported for oaks from world and Chinese flora. Ecological stoichiometry traits were correlated with tree height and diameter at breast height, indicating that phosphorous and potassium were positively correlated with tree size, while carbon was negatively correlated, especially the relationship between oak growth and total carbon or total phosphorus was obvious, and the study concluded that this was because plant growth depended on phosphorus storage and had opposite effects on leaf carbon accumulation. Based on tree plasticity index and the coefficient of variation, there was medium variation in element concentrations. The plasticity index of total carbon levels was the lowest, and that of potassium the highest. Principal component analysis and cluster analysis showed that the intra-specific variation among the four oak species was higher than inter-specific variation. From the perspective of nutrient supply and ecological adaptation, this study creates a foundation for the management of secondary oak forest stands.

Community diversity of ground-dwelling beetles in secondary oak Forest and its adjacent restored poplar Forest

In order to restore the vegetation of forests, China has implemented the project of restoring the farmland to the forest. With the advancement of this project, the artificial vegetation restoration area adjacent to the forest is expanding. In this study, a secondary oak forest, its adjacent restored poplar forest and the secondary oak forest-restored forest ecotone were selected as the study sample plots, and the ground-dwelling beetle community was investigated by pitfall trap method for exploring the diversity characteristics of the ground-dwelling beetle community in this complex ecosystem, in order to reveal the relationship between the ground-dwelling beetle and the environmental changes. In this study, 2458 ground-dwelling beetles belonging to 94 species of 24 families were collected from the secondary oak forest and its adjacent restored poplar forest from April to September 2017, of which Scarabaeidae, Carabidae and Silphidae were the dominant communities of ground-dwelling beetles in the sample plots. The order of the species number and individuals number of ground-dwelling beetles in the different types of vegetation was the secondary oak forest > ecotone > restored poplar forest in turn, with significant differences. The estimation of nonparametric species richness showed that the sampling intensity was not fully saturated, indicating that more surface beetle species could be collected. The Margalef richness index, Simpson diversity index (λ), Hill diversity index (N2), Pielou evenness index (E1), Hill evenness index (E2) and modified Hill evenness index (EHill) of surface beetles were significantly different in the different habitats, and higher diversity and evenness of the surface beetles were maintained in the restored poplar forest, indicating that the restoration and re-naturalization of forest vegetation could increase the insect species and community stability. The community similarity analysis indicated that the ground-dwelling beetle community among the secondary oak forest, the ecotone and the restored poplar forest was at the middle level of dissimilarity. The edge effect intensity analysis suggested that there was a negative edge effect in the ecotone between the secondary oak forest and the restored poplar forest.

黄土丘陵区辽东栎群落优势种和主要伴生种树干液流动态特征

黄土丘陵区辽东栎群落优势种和主要伴生种树干液流动态特征

Climatic and human impacts on landscape development of the Murav'ev Amursky Peninsula (Russian South Far East) in the Middle/Late Holocene and historical time

The Murav'ev-Amursky Peninsula is one of the most densely populated and industrially developed regions in the Russian Far East and is included in Bolshoy (Greater) Vladivostok. Before its intensive development began approximately 150 years ago, the mountainous portion of the peninsula was covered by coniferous forests, with mixed broadleaved forests confined to the coastal lowlands. Vegetation was notably transformed during industrial development. The landscape evolution and development of native communities under Middle/Late Holocene short-time climate changes are of particular interest. The results allow the relative importance of natural and anthropogenic factors in landscape transformation to be determined. Integrated studies of marine and terrestrial sequences on the Murav'inaya Bay coasts form the foundation for reconstructing changes in the Murav'ev-Amursky Peninsula landscapes over the last 5950 cal. Yrs. Pollen and diatom analyses as well as radiocarbon dating provide insight into the landscape response to climate fluctuations during the Middle/Late Holocene. Changes in the depositional environments were essentially controlled by fluctuations in the level of the Sea of Japan, as illustrated by the reconstructed history of Cherepashye Lake, which formed ∼2000 cal. Yr BP and replaced a lagoon. Several stages in this evolution show variations in the degree of connection with the sea. The materials obtained made it possible to reconstruct the environments at the time when site Cherepakha-13 came into being. The site appeared under climatic conditions similar to those of today, and the sea level was below the present sea level (Zaisanovskaya archeological culture). The people of the Lidovskaya and Yankovskaya archeological cultures settled under a climate warmer than that at present, with a sea level above the present-day sea level, and broadleaved forests with Korean pine grew on the coast. During the Yankovskaya and Krownovskaya cultural period, the climate began to cool and the sea level dropped. These changes led to deterioration of living conditions of these people. In the 13th century, when a Jurchen settlement appeared at Murav'inaya Bay, the coastal plain was dominated by Korean pine-broadleaved forests, and mixed forests were poorer in composition than the earlier forest vegetation. Additionally, alder woodlands became widespread around the lake. In the 17th to 19th centuries, coniferous tree species (and Korean pine in particular) abruptly gained in importance in the vegetation of the peninsula. Secondary oak forests became widely distributed in the 20th century due to intensive human activities.

Soil C:N:P stoichiometry in plantations of N-fixing black locust and indigenous pine, and secondary oak forests in Northwest China

Soil nutrient concentrations and stoichiometry are important indicators of plant growth, terrestrial productivity, and ecosystem functioning. Nevertheless, little is known about the vertical distribution and the environmental factors influencing the spatial patterns of different forest types under the “Grain for Green” program and the “Natural Forest Resources Protection” project in Northwest of China. We collected 114 soil profile samples within a 0–100-cm depth from black locust and Chinese pine plantations, and secondary oak forests. We determined the vertical distributions of soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and their ratios along environmental gradients in Shaanxi Province, Northwest China. The results showed that both SOC and TN concentrations decreased exponentially within the soil profiles of the three forest types, but there was minimal change in TP. Significant differences in SOC, TN, and TP were found in the surface soil layers among the forest types. Both SOC and TN were relatively low in the N-fixing black locust plantations and TP was comparatively low in the Chinese pine plantations. The C:N:P ratios decreased with increasing soil depth for the three forest types. These ratios were comparatively high in the Chinese pine plantations, relatively low in the black locust plantations, and moderate in the oak forests. The differences in the ratios among the three forest types were more significant in surface soil than in deep soil. Precipitation was positively correlated with the concentrations of SOC and TN and the ratios of C:N:P. Temperature was negatively correlated with concentrations of SOC and TN and the ratios of C:N:P across all soil depths. A log-transformed linear C-N relationship was found for all three forest types, suggesting a well-constrained coupling between the levels of the two elements. Our results demonstrated the effect of different tree species on soil C:N:P ratios and their controlling factors within soil profiles along environmental gradients. The secondary oak forest accumulated soil C and N more effectively than the plantations. The Chinese pine plantations were relatively more susceptible to P limitation. Therefore, the mechanism of different plant species on soil biogeochemical processes at the whole soil profile level must be considered when developing forest management strategies and implementing vegetation restoration projects.

Ecosystem C:N:P stoichiometry and carbon storage in plantations and a secondary forest on the Loess Plateau, China

Establishing plantations and protecting secondary forests are important measures to enhance carbon (C) sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems. We compared the C: nitrogen (N): phosphorous (P) stoichiometry of major ecosystem components and the C storage partitioning patterns in three ∼40-year-old forests of a fast-growing, N-fixing black locust plantation (Robinia pseudoacacia), an indigenous Chinese pine plantation (Pinus tabuliformis Carrière), and a secondary oak forest (Quercus liaotungensis) on the Loess Plateau, China. The concentrations of C, N, and P in tree tissues, herbs, litter and soils were measured by sampling. The tree tissues biomass was calculated using published species-specific allometric equations and the soil C stock of each soil layer is based on the soil layer depth, its bulk density, and C concentrations. Results showed that N concentrations of tree tissues, herbs, and litter in the N-fixing R. pseudoacacia stands were significantly higher than those in the P. tabuliformis and Q. liaotungensis stands. However, there were no significant differences in soil C and N concentrations between N-fixing and non-N-fixing stands. Soil P concentration was higher only in the R. pseudoacacia and P. tabuliformis plantations when compared to the secondary Q. liaotungensis forest. Leaf N:P ratios indicated soil P limitation in the R. pseudoacacia plantation and the secondary Q. liaotungensis forest (N:P ratios >16), while both N and P limitation were found in the P. tabuliformis plantation (N:P ratios=14). No shrub vegetation was found in the plantations. Litter C storage was significantly lower in the R. pseudoacacia stands than in the P. tabuliformis and Q. liaotungensis stands. The ecosystem C storage of the secondary Q. liaotungensis forest (359tha−1) was higher than that of the P. tabuliformis (298tha−1) and R. pseudoacacia (214tha−1) plantations. The majority of C storage was in the soil pool, accounting for 76.75%, 60.37%, and 67.93% in the R. pseudoacacia plantation, P. tabuliformis plantation, and the secondary Q. liaotungensis forest, respectively. These results indicate that the secondary Q. liaotungensis forest and indigenous P. tabuliformis plantation enhance C storage more substantially than the fast-growing R. pseudoacacia plantation in the long-term on the Loess Plateau.

Restoration effects influenced by plant species and landscape context in Young-il region, Southeast Korea: Structural and compositional assessment on restored forest

Despite it has been mentioned that the successful restoration in landscape level was achieved in the Young-il soil erosion control project, quantitative evaluation of restored plant communities (Alnus firma as introduced species and Pinus thunbergii as native species) was hardly founded. Light availability, litter and woody debris cover, and forest structure and composition were determined for 500 m2 band-quadrat in three forest types. Abiotic factors of Q. serrata stands, as reference forest, and A. firma stands were similar but not for P. thunbergii stands. There were no significant difference on mean stem density (stems ha-1, H = 3.6, p = 0.162), and the mean basal area of each stand had marginal significance (m2 ha-1, H = 5.7, p = 0.058) among stands as total basal area was higher with the order of A. firma (21.4 m2 ha-1), P. thunbergii (19.8 m2 ha-1) and Q. serrata (16.2 m2 ha-1). Restoration of vegetation structure was more effective in fast-growing and N-fixing A. firma, as introduced species plantation. However, result of MRPP, NMS ordination and ISPAN for herbaceous layer, not for tree and shrub species composition, indicated that restoration of ground vegetation was likely influenced highly from local environment. Propagule availability from landscape context such as connectedness to natural vegetation and management practices in restored isolated stands are available explanations for restoration effects and gaps between restored plantations and secondary oak forest.

Regulations and patterns of soil moisture dynamics and their controlling factors in hilly regions of lower reaches of Yangtze River basin, China

Time-domain reflectometry was used to make continuous measurements of soil moisture to 18 sample points with depth of 2 m for 36 months in a typical artificial secondary oak forest located in a hilly area on Zijin Mountain in the suburbs of Nanjing, China. The data were then used to examine the patterns of soil moisture variations on temporal and spatial scales and predict the relationships between soil moisture and major factors of both meteorology and topography. Water in the topsoil was active, and the upper 30 cm of soil supplied about 43% of the water content variation during the whole year. This difference of water content changes among layers could be due to the distribution conditions of some soil physical properties. When initial soil moisture was in the range from 10% to 40%, the impact of a single storm event on soil moisture was extremely significant, especially on sunny slope. Both climate and slope condition were related to soil moisture change, and the impact of slope gradient on soil moisture was higher that on shady slope. Moreover, root uptake was another important path of soil water consumption.

Food Habits of Sika Deer at Otome Highland, Yamanashi, with Reference toSasa nipponica

For the last two decades, sika deer in Japan have expanded their range. The Otome Highland in Yamanashi Prefecture, central Japan, is no exception, as the abundance of sika deer has increased in this region, particularly over the last decade. Because many populations of sika deer inhabiting the central or northern Pacific region of Japan are dependent on Sasa nipponica, a dwarf bamboo growing in the understory of deciduous broad-leaved forests, as a food plant (Takatsuki 1983, 1986; Ueda et al. 2002; Kobayashi and Takatsuki 2012), the deer population of Otome Highland, which belongs to the same climatic zone, is also expected to depend on this species. The forest of Otome Highland was once a montane forest of Fagus crenata, but was logged to become a secondary oak forest, which is common to other places. A unique point of this highland is that it was logged for skiing in 1951, and subsequently, a grassland composed of grasses and various forbs developed. Thus, sika deer would utilize both forest and grassland. In many habitats of sika deer, Sasa nipponica is an important food for the deer during the winter because other forbs and grasses senesce and trees and shrubs lose their leaves; thus, S. nipponica is the almost only evergreen forage plant. Therefore, documenting the extent of deer grazing on S. nipponica during winter is important. Thus, the objectives of this study were to quantitatively analyze the food habits of sika deer in the Otome Highland and to determine their grazing intensity on S. nipponica.

Accelerated soil CO2 efflux after conversion from secondary oak forest to pine plantation in southeastern China

AbstractSoil respiration (Rs) is an important component of the carbon cycle in terrestrial ecosystems, and changes in soil respiration with land cover alteration can have important implications for regional carbon balances. In southeastern China (Xiashu Experimental Forest, Jiangsu Province), we used an automated LI‐8100 soil CO2 flux system to quantify diurnal variation of soil respiration in a secondary oak forest and a pine plantation. We found that soil respiration in the pine plantation was significantly higher than that in the secondary oak forest. There were similar patterns of soil respiration throughout the day in both the secondary oak forest and the pine plantation during our 7‐month study (March–September 2005). The maximum of Rs occurred between 4:00 pm and 7:00 pm. The diurnal variations of Rs were usually out of phase with soil surface (0.5 cm) temperature (Tg). However, annual variation in Rs correlated with surface soil temperature. Soil respiration reached to a maximum in June, and decreased thereafter. The Q10 of Rs in the secondary oak forest was significantly higher than that in the pine plantation. The higher Q10 value in the secondary oak forest implied that it might release more CO2 than the pine plantation under a global‐warming scenario. Our results indicated that land‐use change from secondary forest to plantation may cause a significant increase in CO2 emission, and reduce the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration in southeastern China.

Phytogeography of the bryophyte floras of oak forests and páramo of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica

AbstractAim Central America is a biogeographically interesting area because of its location between the rich and very different biota of North and South America. We aim to assess phytogeographical patterns in the bryophyte floras of oak forests and páramo of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica.Location Tropical America, in particular the montane area of Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica.Methods The analysis is based on a new critical inventory of the montane bryophyte flora of Cordillera de Talamanca. All species were assigned to phytogeographical elements on the basis of their currently known distribution. Absolute and percentage similarities were employed to evaluate floristic affinities.Results A total of 401 species [191 hepatics (liverworts), one hornwort, 209 mosses] are recorded; of these, 251 species (128 hepatics, one hornwort, 122 mosses) occur in oak forests. Ninety‐three per cent of all oak forest species are tropical in distribution, the remaining 7% are temperate (4%) and cosmopolitan (3%) species. The neotropical element includes almost 74% of the species, the wide tropical element (pantropical, amphi‐atlantic, amphi‐pacific) only 19%. A significant part of the neotropical species from oak forests are species with tropical Andean‐centred ranges (27%). As compared with bryophyte species, vascular plant genera in the study region are represented by fewer neotropical, more temperate and more amphi‐pacific taxa. Bryophyte floras of different microhabitats within the oak forest and epiphytic bryophyte floras on Quercus copeyensis in primary, early secondary and late secondary oak forest show a similar phytogeographical make‐up to the total oak forest bryophyte flora. Comparison of oak forest and páramo reveals a greater affinity of the páramo bryophyte flora to temperate regions and the great importance of the páramo element in páramo. Surprisingly, oak forests have more Central American endemics than páramo.Main conclusions (1) Providing first insights into the phytogeographical patterns of the bryophyte flora of oak forests and páramo, we are able to confirm general phytogeographical trends recorded from vascular plant genera of the study area although the latter were more rich in temperate taxa. (2) Andean‐centred species are a conspicuous element in the bryophyte flora of Cordillera de Talamanca, reflecting the close historical connection between the montane bryophyte floras of Costa Rica and South America. (3) High percentages of Central American endemics in the bryophyte flora of the oak forests suggest the importance of climatic changes associated with Pleistocene glaciations for allopatric speciation.

Cryptogamic epiphytes in primary and recovering upper montane oak forests of Costa Rica – species richness, community composition and ecology

Species richness, community composition and ecology of cryptogamic epiphytes (bryophytes, macrolichens) were studied in upper montane primary, early secondary and late secondary oak forests of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Canopy trees of Quercus copeyensis were sampled with the aim of getting insight in patterns and processes of epiphyte succession and recovery of diversity in secondary forest following forest clearing. Species richness of cryptogamic epiphytes in secondary and primary forests were nearly the same, showing that primary forests are not necessarily more diverse than secondary forests. High species richness of secondary forests was presumed due to the closed canopy, resulting in permanently high atmospheric humidity in these forests. Similarity in species composition of secondary and primary forests increases with forest age, but after 40 years of succession one third (46 species) of primary forest species had not re-established in the secondary forest. Community composition in primary and secondary forests differed markedly and indicates that a long time is needed for the re-establishment of microhabitats and re-invasion of species and communities adapted to differentiated niches. Genera and species exclusive to primary forests are relevant as indicator taxa and conservation targets. Forty percent (68 species) of all species recorded are restricted to secondary forests, indicating the important contribution of secondary forest diversity to total species richness of the oak forests of Costa Rica.

A sticky screen trap for surveying aerial populations of the ambrosia beetle Platypus quercivorus(Coleoptera: Platypodidae).

We developed a sticky screen trap to investigate the aerial population of the ambrosia beetle Platypus quercivorus (Murayama). The beetle is believed to be an important vector of an unidentified ambrosia fungus belongingto the genus Raffaelea that causes oak dieback in Japan. The trap was made of a 1-m 2 of polyethylene screen, 2.4 mmX2.6 mm mesh size, to obtain light, wide traps that allow air movement through the intercepting surface. An adhesive substance (Kinryusupurei, Maruzen Co. Ltd.) was sprayed on both sides of the polyethylene screen once a week. In 1999, 18 traps were set in the understory of a secondary oak forest in Ishikawa, Japan. Adults of P quercivorus were captured from 6 July to 22 November. A total of 24,225 beetles was captured by the traps. The average number per trap was 1,345.8 (range, 353-3,408), which was greater than the trap catches in any of the previous studies. Our results showed that this trap was useful for analyzing the seasonal changes in the aerial population of P. quercivorus and its directional movement. On each surface of the traps, the distribution of the trapped adults was aggregative, that is, some parts of the trap had many beetles and others had few or none. Although in a given trap the distribution of beetles on the uphill-facing surface was spatially correlated with that on the downhill-facing surface, the parts of the trap in which the beetles tended to be caught varied widely among traps and among collecting dates. Significantly more P. quercivorus were captured on the downhill-facing surface than on the uphill-facing surface. On the downhill-facing surface of the traps, more adults were caught in the bottom half of the traps than in the top half of the traps, but on the uphill-facing surface, the catches in the bottom half of the traps were not significantly different from the catches in the top half of the traps.

Effects of rodent gnawing on the survival of current‐year seedlings of Quercus crispula

Emergence, survival and mortality patterns of current‐year oak (Quercus crispula Blume) seedlings were investigated for 4 consecutive years in a secondary oak forest in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Despite the emergence of a considerable number of oak seedlings in the years following masting, few current‐year seedlings survived until the end of the growing season. Almost all of the seedlings died from damage to their stems caused by the gnawing of rodents. Rodent gnawing on transplanted oak seedlings was also observed in the year following masting but not in the year following a bad crop year. Cuttings of dwarf bamboo, Sasa, did not reduce the seedling mortality caused by gnawing. However, transplanted oak seedlings were gnawed more quickly when they were placed on the forest floor with a thicker Sasa covering. All rodents trapped in the vicinity of the study area were Apodemus speciosus Temminck. These results suggest that rodents strongly influence the recruitment of oak trees not only through the predation and dispersal of acorns but also through gnawing seedlings.

Gnawing damage by rodents to the seedlings of Fagus crenata and Quercus mongolica var. grosseserrata in a temperate Sasa grassland‐deciduous forest series in southwestern Japan

AbstractThe effects of dwarf bamboo, Sasa, cover on the initial morrality of hardwood seedlings were investigated by transplanting 1‐year‐old beech (Fagus crenata) and current‐year oak (Quercus mongolica var. grosseserrata) seedling to three different stands; old‐growth beech and secondary oak forests with Sasa undergrowth, and a Sasa grassland in a grassland‐forest series near the top of Mt Jippo, southwestern Japan. The most frequent cause of seedling morrality was gnawing of the stems by rodents. In the beech forest, the gnawing was more likely to occur under Sasa cover, suggesting that it provides a good habitat for rodents on the beech forest floor. The Sasa under growth may thus play an imporrant role in regeneration of beech forest. In the oak floor, mortality of both species was low and only a little gnawing occurred during a year. However, no natural oak seedling were found in the forest even after a mast year. This may be because most of the acorns disappeated before establishment. The early‐stage demography of hardwood seedling as oak may thus play an imporrant role in regeneration of oak forest. In the Sasa grassland where the seed supply is small, almost all of the seedlings died fromo gnawing regardless of the presence of Sasa cover. These factors prevent the recruitment of a sizable seedling bank. Rodents may thus play an imporrant role in maintenance of the Sasa grassland.

The Palatability and Browsing Effects of Goats to Woody Species in a Secondary oak Forest in the Temperate Zone of Japan

The Palatability and Browsing Effects of Goats to Woody Species in a Secondary oak Forest in the Temperate Zone of Japan

Differences in sapling architecture between Fagus crenata and Fagus japonica

AbstractThe ecological significance of architectural patterns for saplings of Fagus crenata and Fagus japonica co‐occurring in a secondary oak forest were evaluated by comparing the size and shape of leaves, trunks and crowns. Fagus japonica saplings were different from F. crenata saplings in some architectural properties: (i) the leaf area and specific leaf area were larger; (ii) the ratio of sapling height to trunk length was lower, indicating greater leaning of the trunk; and (iii) the projection area of the crown was larger and the leaf area index lower indicating less mutual shading of leaves. These architectural features indicated that F. japonica saplings were more shade tolerant than F. crenata and F. crenata saplings were superior to F. japonica for growth in height and could, therefore, utilize sunlight in the upper layer. An erect trunk in F. crenata and a leaning trunk in F. japonica may be important characteristics associated with the regenerations patterns of each species; regeneration from seedlings under canopy gaps in the former and vegetative regeneration by sprouting in the latter.