Secondary Environmental Effects Research Articles

An Innovative Approach for Elemental Mercury Adsorption Using X-ray Irradiation and Electrospun Nylon/Chitosan Nanofibers.

A novel approach was proposed, utilizing an electrical field and X-ray irradiation to oxidize elemental mercury (Hg0) and encapsulate it within a nanofibrous mat made of Polyamide 6/Chitosan. The X-rays contributed significantly to the conversion of Hg0 into Hg+ by producing electrons through the photoionization of gas molecules. The positive and negative pole electrodes generated an electric field that exerted a magnetic force, resulting in the redirection of oxidized elemental mercury towards the negative pole electrode, which was coupled with a Polyamide 6/Chitosan nanofiber mat. The evaluation of the Polyamide 6/Chitosan nanofibers exposed to oxidized mercury showed that the mercury, found in the steam of a specially designed filtration device, was captured in two different forms. Firstly, it was chemically bonded with concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 10 ng of Hg in total. Secondly, it was retained on the surface of the Polyamide 6/Chitosan nanofibers with a concentration of 10 microg/m3 of Hg per minute. Nevertheless, a concentration of 10 microg/m3 of mercury is considered significant, given that the emission levels of mercury from each coal power plant typically vary from approximately 4.72 to 44.07 microg/m3. Thus, this research presents a viable approach to reducing mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants, which could result in lower operational expenses and less secondary environmental effects.

Effects of small marine energy deployments on oceanographic systems

The placement and operation of marine energy deployments in the ocean have the potential to change flow patterns, decrease wave heights, and/or remove energy from the oceanographic system. Changes in oceanographic systems resulting from harvesting marine energy, particularly tidal and wave energy, may be of concern. These changes include alterations in nearfield and farfield physical processes, as well as potential secondary environmental effects such as changes in sediment transport patterns, biological processes, or coastal erosion. Knowledge of changes in oceanographic systems associated with marine energy is primarily available from numerical modeling studies, informed by some laboratory tests and very few field measurements. A literature review was conducted using the Tethys knowledge base and other online sources, building on conclusions from the Ocean Energy Systems-Environmental State of the Science report. Potential changes in oceanographic systems that may be caused by marine energy differ between tidal and wave devices because of different extraction mechanisms and siting locations. Numerical models show that tidal extraction on the order of hundreds of megawatts or with significant channel blockage is required to create changes in oceanographic processes that exceed natural variability. Effects from wave energy extraction in arrays are localized and dependent on array spacing and proximity to the shore. Available evidence supports the conclusion that the risk of significant environmental effects from such changes could be retired (i.e., less investigation required for every project) for small deployments—those representative of the state of the industry in 2021. Determining changes in oceanographic systems to be low risk for small deployments can thereby streamline environmental consenting by reducing monitoring needs at this early stage in the industry.

The AD 1755 Lisbon Earthquake-Tsunami: Seismic source modelling from the analysis of ESI-07 environmental data

This work presents a macroseismic analysis of the AD 1755 Lisbon Earthquake-Tsunami event by means of the combination of intensity data derived from the EMS-98 scale and the ESI-07 scale (Environmental damage). About 600 records of secondary earthquake environmental effects (EEEs) for the whole Spain have been used to define intensities, focused on the SW portion of the Iberian Peninsula. The Spanish data have been complemented with 308 EEEs records from Portugal. The analyses indicate maximum intensities of X EMS-ESI along the Atlantic margin of the Iberian Peninsula with 76 records of Tsunami environmental effects (TEEs). An important amplification (VIII – VII) occurred all along the Guadalquivir basin and the adjacent Betic front at epicentral distances of 300–700 km. In these zones 55 records of ground effects (ground cracks, Liquefactions and slope movements) are catalogued. In the rest of the territory of the Peninsula the most widespread effects were hydrogeological changes with 505 records in Spain and 196 in Portugal (total 701 records) covering all the intensity levels. Increase of flow discharges in springs and elevation of water level in wells was the common groundwater response to seismic shacking, especially in SW Iberia. In this zone water elevation in wells was between 5 and 3 m and persistent increases of discharges long-lasting (several days to two months). Persistent discharges on springs were linked in 143 cases to important SW-NE crustal faults (e.g., Alentejo-Plasencia Fault). From the Intensity distribution the historic seismic scenarios are explored by means of the development of empirical ShakeMaps. These consider the three classical seismic sources proposed for this earthquake: Gorringe Bank (G); Marques de Pombal Fault (M) and Atlantic delamination beneath the Gulf of Cadiz (C). However, individually these seismic sources are too small and unable to generate the resulting seismic scenario depicted by the intensity map developed in this work, with onshore seismic accelerations (PGA) up to 0.82 g. These acceleration values and the great amplification experienced throughout the Guadalquivir basin (0.34–0.52 g) are only possible considering a combination of the three seismic sources (GMC Source) probably related to shallow subduction or lithospheric delamination beneath SW Iberia and the Gulf of Cadiz. This will suggest an NNE-SSW offshore rupture length of 350–360 km with an overall rupture area of c. 84,500 km2 resulting in an event magnitude 8.6 Mw calculated from empirical relationships. The results demonstrate the efficacy of these kind of approaches for better identifying and modelling seismic sources for historical events.

Liquefaction Phenomena Induced by the 26 November 2019, Mw = 6.4 Durrës (Albania) Earthquake and Liquefaction Susceptibility Assessment in the Affected Area

On 26 November 2019, an Mw = 6.4 earthquake struck the central-western part of Albania. Its impact comprises secondary earthquake environmental effects (EEE) and severe building damage within the Periadriatic and the Tirana Depressions. EEE comprised mainly liquefaction phenomena in coastal, riverine, and lagoonal sites of the earthquake-affected area. From the evaluation of all available earthquake-related data, it is concluded that liquefaction sites are not randomly distributed within the affected area but are structurally and lithologically controlled. The affected areas are distributed within NW–SE striking zones formed in graben-like syncline areas with NW–SE trending fold axes. These graben-like areas are bounded by NW–SE striking marginal thrust faults and are filled with geological formations of Neogene to Quaternary age. These NW–SE striking zones and structures coincide with the NW–SE striking seismogenic thrust fault of the November 2019 earthquake as it is derived from the provided fault plane solutions. An approach for liquefaction susceptibility assessment is applied based on geological and seismological data and on liquefaction inventory. From the comparison of the compiled liquefaction inventory and the susceptibility maps, it is concluded that the majority of the observed liquefaction has been generated in very high and high susceptible areas.

Effects of Pleistocene to Holocene seismicity on the landforms and fluvial-lacustrine sequences of the Ixtlahuaca paleobasin, and their possible relation with the Acambay graben: Implications for the seismic hazard assessment of central Mexico

We mapped Plio-Pleistocene lake deposits in the Ixtlahuaca paleobasin in Central Mexico, located 51 km south of the Acambay Graben and 69 km west of Mexico City. Within the Acambay basin, Pleistocene to Holocene lake sediments record primary and secondary environmental effects of strong local earthquakes as a consequence of Quaternary activity of the major normal border faults. Likewise, the Ixtlahuaca paleobasin has been controlled mainly by the Quaternary evolution of the Perales and Ixtlahuaca faults, even if there is no record of local historical earthquakes, and therefore the area has not been considered as potentially seismic. However, the application of the ESI 2007 Scale to deformation structures as effects of seismic events on the geological-natural environment in the Tierras Blancas - San Bartolo Lanzados basins and San Pedro El Alto, within the Acambay graben, and its comparison with seismites identified in the Ixtlahuaca paleobasin, show that past earthquakes similar to the Mw 6.5 to 7 surface faulting events generated by the main faults of the Acambay graben have also occurred in the Ixtlahuaca area.

Primary and Secondary Environmental Effects Triggered by the 30 October 2020, Mw = 7.0, Samos (Eastern Aegean Sea, Greece) Earthquake Based on Post-Event Field Surveys and InSAR Analysis

On 30 October 2020, an Mw = 7.0 earthquake struck the eastern Aegean Sea. It triggered earthquake environmental effects (EEEs) on Samos Island detected by field surveys, relevant questionnaires, and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) analysis. The primary EEEs detected in the field comprise coseismic uplift imprinted on rocky coasts and port facilities around Samos and coseismic surface ruptures in northern Samos. The secondary EEEs were mainly observed in northern Samos and include slope failures, liquefaction, hydrological anomalies, and ground cracks. With the contribution of the InSAR, subsidence was detected and slope movements were also identified in inaccessible areas. Moreover, the type of the surface deformation detected by InSAR is qualitatively identical to field observations. As regards the EEE distribution, effects were generated in all fault blocks. By applying the Environmental Seismic Intensity (ESI-07) scale, the maximum intensities were observed in northern Samos. Based on the results from the applied methods, it is suggested that the northern and northwestern parts of Samos constitute an almost 30-km-long coseismic deformation zone characterized by extensive primary and secondary EEEs. The surface projection of the causative offshore northern Samos fault points to this zone, indicating a depth–surface connection and revealing a significant role in the rupture propagation.

Enlightenment from the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Roles of Environmental Factors in Future Public Health Emergency Response.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is challenging the current public health emergency response systems (PHERSs) of many countries. Although environmental factors, such as those influencing the survival of viruses and their transmission between species including humans, play important roles in PHERSs, little attention has been given to these factors. This study describes and elucidates the roles of environmental factors in future PHERSs. To improve countries’ capability to respond to public health emergencies associated with viral infections such as the COVID-19 pandemic, a number of environmental factors should be considered before, during, and after the responses to such emergencies. More specifically, to prevent pandemic outbreaks, we should strengthen environmental and wildlife protection, conduct detailed viral surveillance in animals and hotspots, and improve early-warning systems. During the pandemic, we must study the impacts of environmental factors on viral behaviors, develop control measures to minimize secondary environmental risks, and conduct timely assessments of viral risks and secondary environmental effects with a view to reducing the impacts of the pandemic on human health and on ecosystems. After the pandemic, we should further strengthen surveillance for viruses and the prevention of viral spread, maintain control measures for minimizing secondary environmental risks, develop our capability to scientifically predict pandemics and resurgences, and prepare for the next unexpected resurgence. Meanwhile, we should restore the normal life and production of the public based on the “One Health” concept, that views global human and environmental health as inextricably linked. Our recommendations are essential for improving nations’ capability to respond to global public health emergencies.

The Most Devastating Earthquake in the Pannonian Basin: 28 June 1763 Komárom

Abstract The 1763 Komárom (now Komárno, Slovakia) earthquake was the biggest historical and recorded seismic event in the Pannonian basin in the last millennium. Contemporary documents including building damage reports from the towns of Komárom, Győr, and other locations, aftershock reports, liquefaction reports, and local surveys of taxpayers’ loss in villages are presented to build all available datasets to evaluate the effects of the quake. Damage in towns was recorded in detail only at the aforementioned two locations. However, the spatial distribution of shaking intensity can be inferred over a larger area from information obtained from other sources. Distributions of secondary environmental effects, aftershocks, and village damage show interesting spatial correlation among them and indicate that the epicenter may have been west of Komárom, north of the Danube River.

Intensity Reassessment of the 2017 Pohang Earthquake Mw = 5.4 (South Korea) Using ESI-07 Scale

The earthquake environmental effects (EEEs) around the epicentral area of the Pohang earthquake (Mw-5.4) that occurred on 15 November 2017 have been collected and classified using the Environmental Seismic Intensity Scale (ESI-07 scale) proposed by the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA) focus group. The shallow-focus 15 November Pohang earthquake did not produce any surface rupture, but caused extensive secondary environmental effects and damage to life-line structures. This earthquake was one of the most damaging earthquakes during the instrumental seismic era of the Korean Peninsula. The EEEs included extensive liquefaction, ground cracks, ground settlement, localized rockfall, and variation of the water table. The main objective of this paper was to carry forward a comparative assessment of the Pohang earthquake’s intensity based on traditional macroseismic scales and the ESI-07 scale. With that objective, this study will also make a substantial contribution to any future revision of the ESI-07 scale, which mostly comprises case studies from Europe and South America. The comparison of the ESI-07 scale with traditional intensity scales similar to the intensity scale used by the Korean Meteorological Administration for the epicentral areas showed 1–2-degree differences in intensity. Moreover, the ESI scale provided a clearer picture of the intensity around the epicentral area, which is mostly agricultural land with a lack of urban units or buildings. This study urges the integration of the traditional and ESI-07 scale for such small magnitude earthquakes in the Korean Peninsula as well as around the world in future. This will predict seismic intensity more precisely and hence provide a more-effective seismic hazard estimation, particularly in areas of low seismic activity. The present study will also provide a useful and reliable tool for the seismic hazard assessment of similar earthquakes around the study area and land-use planning at a local scale considering the secondary effects.

Discovery and development of pyrethroid insecticides.

Pyrethroid insecticides contain natural pyrethrins extracted from pyrethrum flowers, and their synthetic derivatives, pyrethroids. The present article provides an overview of the structure of natural pyrethrins, and the discovery and development of pyrethroids with an emphasis on the background of selected compounds. The stereochemical relationships among pyrethroid secondary alcohols, and toxicologic and environmental effects of pyrethroids are also discussed. Finally, the pyrethroid resistance of mosquitoes and future aspects of pyrethroids are addressed.

LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY FOR PET PACKAGES IN THE INTERGRATION WITH IO TABLE OF VIET NAM

Waste recycle have been strongly focusing in Vietnam. However secondary environmental effects of the recycling activities have been debatable. This study produces a life cycle inventory (LCI) data set of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) packages in the country with further analysis for biggest PET users such as electronic sectors and/or food processing sectors. Loop recycling allocations are approached to calculate GHGs emission and solid waste in the life cycle of 1 ton of PET packages. Input-output (IO) tables are integrated into the study in order to identify indirect environmental burdens from the plastics sector contributed to other sectors in the Vietnamese economy. Based on the 2016 updated IO table, the PET packages occupied 37.43% of GDP of the plastics sector. In term of PET packages demanding, two biggest groups were food processing sectors and electronic sectors, accounted for 5.87% and 10.75% of total PET packages used in 2016, respectively. In term of indirect environmental burdens, these two groups were also the biggest GHGs and waste generators. Among three materials options, GHGs emission from option 1 (100% PETv) was biggest and waste from option 3 (100% PETr) was biggest. Beside the LCI results, this study aims to contribute to the existing literature on GHGs as well as PET waste balances by considering the remaining effects in PET production, distribution and recycling in Vietnam.

SPATIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES TO EARTHQUAKE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS (EEES)

The study examines a semi-quantitative indicator based method to assess the spatial susceptibility of archaeological sites to the secondary Earthquake Environmental Effects (EEEs) of ground liquefaction, landslides and tsunami. The method was applied at 16 archaeological sites allowing the identification of the EEEs each site is susceptible to and their prioritization at a national and regional level through the Spatial Susceptibility index (SSi). Results indicate that the majority of the sites are susceptible to at least one Earthquake Environmental Effect. This highlights their contribution to the vulnerability of archaeological sitesto earthquake hazard and the necessity for the integration of spatial susceptibility parameters in vulnerability assessment studies for cultural heritage protection.

Vulnerability assessment of archaeological sites to earthquake hazard: An indicator based method integrating spatial and temporal aspects

Across the world, numerous sites of cultural heritage value are at risk from a variety of human-induced and natural hazards such as war and earthquakes. Here we present and test a novel indicator-based method for assessing the vulnerability of archaeological sites to earthquakes. Vulnerability is approached as a dynamic element assessed through a combination of spatial and temporal parameters. The spatial parameters examine the susceptibility of the sites to the secondary Earthquake Environmental Effects of ground liquefaction, landslides and tsunami and are expressed through the Spatial Susceptibility Index (SSi). Parameters of physical vulnerability, economic importance and visitors density examine the temporal vulnerability of the sites expressed through the Temporal Vulnerability Index (TVi). The equally weighted sum of the spatial and temporal indexes represents the total Archaeological Site Vulnerability Index (A.S.V.I.). The A.S.V.I method is applied at 16 archaeological sites across Greece, allowing an assessment of their vulnerability. This then allows the establishment of a regional and national priority list for considering future risk mitigation . Results indicate that i) the majority of the sites have low to moderate vulnerability to earthquake hazard, ii) Neratzia Fortress on Kos and Heraion on Samos are characterised as highly vulnerable and should be prioritised for further studies and mitigation measures, and iii) the majority of the sites are susceptible to at least one Earthquake Environmental Effect and present relatively high physical vulnerability attributed to the existing limited conservation works . This approach highlight s the necessity for an effective vulnerability assessment methodology within the existing framework of disaster risk management for cultural heritage.

ESI-07 ShakeMaps for instrumental and historical events in the Betic Cordillera (SE Spain): An approach based on geological data and applied to seismic hazard

This work presents high-resolution ShakeMaps for three earthquakes occurred in the Betic Cordillera (SE Spain): the 2011 CE Lorca event (VIII ESI-07), the 1863 CE Huércal-Overa event (VIII ESI-07) and the 1829 CE Torrevieja event (X ESI-07). Detailed field characterizations and mapping of their coseismic environmental effects (EEEs) are catalogued and classified following the ESI-07 scale. The resulting macroseismic information reaches up to ten times the existing information based on conventional damage-based scales (e.g. EMS-98), providing a better constrain towards more realistic ground-motion scenarios. The 2011 Lorca earthquake has been used as a calibration event, since there is a relevant record of instrumental measures on source, and ground-motion parameters allowing a direct comparison with the modelled PGA values. From a methodological standpoint, the obtained ShakeMaps follow the basic guidelines and methodology proposed by the USGS ShakeMap Program. The two historical earthquakes analysed in this paper produced a wide variety of secondary EEEs but no surface faulting was reported. These effects need to be properly identified by high-resolution DTMs (5 m/pixel), far from the c. 900 m/pixel terrain models used by USGS program. Additionally, the proposed ESI-07 ShakeMaps incorporate correction factors to solve inconsistencies derived from the large scale terrain models considered in standard USGS program workflows: (1) empirical slope-derived Vs30 models result in overestimations of the PGA values in flat terrains in absence of unconsolidated deposits; (2) the topographic amplification factor included here, explains the occurrence of rock-falls and landslides in steep areas, where ground motion is underestimated by the sole use of slope-derived Vs30 models. Basic geological and geomorphological information need to be implemented in the modelling workflow in both cases. To prevent PGA overestimations in flat terrains a correction factor related to the spatial distribution and thickness of the Quaternary unconsolidated deposits has been incorporated (i.e. isopach maps). To correct PGA underestimations in steep terrains an amplification factor was modelled following standard guidelines of seismic topographic amplification.The comparison via iteration of the spatial distribution of both ESI effects and EMS macroseismic data, with the obtained ground-motion spatial distribution, enables a better definition of the geological parameters for the studied historical earthquakes. A more accurate location and/or size of the suspect seismic sources are obtained for these historical earthquakes, providing scenarios more realistic than those resulting from old intensity maps. Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology are behind the implementation of the proposed ESI-07 ShakeMaps, being especially useful when exploring historic or ancient moderate earthquakes with scarce damage-based macroseismic data, but with sufficient paleoseismic or archaeoseismic records. In summary, the methodological workflow proposed here contemplates the implementation of a computational configuration seismologically relevant and able to test repeated seismic scenarios, with different parametric data, in a controlled GIS environment useful to reproduce historical events.

Acidification of In-Storage-Psychrophilic-Anaerobic-Digestion (ISPAD) process to reduce ammonia volatilization: Model development and validation

In-Storage-Psychrophilic-Anaerobic-Digestion (ISPAD) is an ambient temperature treatment system for wastewaters stored for over 100days under temperate climates, which produces a nitrogen rich digestate susceptible to ammonia (NH3) volatilization. Present acidification techniques reducing NH3 volatilization are not only expensive and with secondary environmental effects, but do not apply to ISPAD relying on batch-to-batch inoculation. The objectives of this study were to identify and validate sequential organic loading (OL) strategies producing imbalances in acidogen and methanogen growth, acidifying ISPAD content one week before emptying to a pH of 6, while also preserving the inoculation potential. This acidification process is challenging as wastewaters often offer a high buffering capacity and ISPAD operational practices foster low microbial populations. A model simulating the ISPAD pH regime was used to optimize 3 different sequential OLs to decrease the ISPAD pH to 6.0. All 3 strategies were compared in terms of biogas production, volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration, microbial activity, glucose consumption, and pH decrease. Laboratory validation of the model outputs confirmed that a sequential OL of 13kg glucose/m3 of ISPAD content over 4days could indeed reduce the pH to 6.0. Such OL competes feasibly with present acidification techniques. Nevertheless, more research is required to explain the 3-day lag between the model results and the experimental data.

Rock-falls and liquefaction related phenomena triggered by the June 8, 2008, Mw=6.4 earthquake in NW Peloponnesus, Greece

<p>A strong earthquake (M<sub>w</sub>=6.4) occurred in NW Peloponnesus, Greece, on June 8, 2008. The focal mechanism shows a transcurrent kinematics, and based on aftershocks distribution the causative fault is a dextral strike-slip NNE-SSW trending structure. The shock generated severe secondary environmental effects like rock-falls and liquefaction phenomena inducing structural damages and ground failures mainly along the fault strike. Evidence of liquefaction was observed in the area of Kato Achaia and Roupakia villages, while rock-falls were triggered mainly close to the epicentre at the foothills of the Skolis Mountain. Based on a quantitative methodological approach, the ground deformation and failures generated by the event have been investigated. In particular, based on an immediate post-event survey, we mapped in detail the distribution of the earthquake-induced ground failures, defining the areas prone to liquefaction and their associated potential. Moreover, a rock-fall hazard zonation in the area of Skolis Mountain has been developed based on the shadow angle approach, confirming the validity of the safety run-out distance models.</p>

Ecotoxicological effects on earthworms of fresh and aged nano-sized zero-valent iron (nZVI) in soil

Although nano-sized zero-valent iron (nZVI) has been used for several years for remediation of contaminated soils and aquifers, only a limited number of studies have investigated secondary environmental effects and ecotoxicity of nZVI to soil organisms. In this study we therefore measured the ecotoxicological effects of nZVI coated with carboxymethyl cellulose on two species of earthworms, Eisenia fetida and Lumbricus rubellus, using standard OECD methods with sandy loam and artificial OECD soil. Earthworms were exposed to nZVI concentrations ranging from 0 to 2000mgnZVIkgsoil−1 added freshly to soil or aged in non-saturated soil for 30d prior to exposure. Regarding avoidance, weight changes and mortality, both earthworm species were significantly affected by nZVI concentrations ⩾500mgkg−1soil. Reproduction was affected also at 100mgnZVIkg−1. Toxicity effects of nZVI were reduced after aging with larger differences between soils compared to non-aged soils. We conclude that doses ⩾500mgnZVIkg−1 are likely to give acute adverse effects on soil organisms, and that effects on reproduction may occur at significantly lower concentrations.

Linking Smallholders to the New Agricultural Economy: The Case of the Plataformas de Concertación in Ecuador

This article examines the challenges of linking smallholders to high-value food markets by looking at the experience of the Plataformas programme in the Ecuadorian Sierra. Multiple evaluation methods are employed to ensure identification of program impact. The findings suggest that the programme successfully improved the welfare of beneficiary farmers, as measured by yields and gross margins. These benefits are achieved through improving the efficiency of agricultural production and through selling at higher prices. No significant secondary health or environmental effects were found. Overall, the programme provides clear evidence that combining production support with facilitating market access can be successful.

The Muzaffarabad, Pakistan, earthquake of 8 October 2005: surface faulting, environmental effects and macroseismic intensity

Abstract The Mw 7.6 Muzaffarabad earthquake of 8 October 2005, occurred on a lateral equivalent of the main ramp of the Hymalaia frontal thrust, and is the result of the collision tectonics between the Indian and Eurasian plates. The epicentre was located near the town of Basantkot (Muzaffarabad), and the focal depth was about 13 km. The Muzaffarabad earthquake provides unequivocal evidence about the localization of severe damage, intense ground shaking and secondary environmental effects near the surface expression of the source fault. We analyse its nature, and impact on man-made structures and the physical environment, on the basis of a detailed survey and macroseismic study of the affected areas conducted by the Micro Seismic Studies Programme (MSSP) Team (Ishfaq Ahmad Research Laboratories, Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission) immediately after the mainshock, assisted by a careful review of the subsequent data and literature. In the course of the field survey, the displacement and surface expression of the causative fault, and accompanying secondary environmental effects were observed at a number of places along a capable thrust fault structure. We refer to this structure as the Kashmir Thrust (KT) capable fault following the terminology of local research geologists in Pakistan; the seismological evidence of this structure is already known in the literature as the Indus–Kohistan Seismic Zone. A complex, clearly segmented, at least 112-km-long surface rupture was mapped along the KT. The maximum values of vertical displacement (on the order of 4 to 7 m) were observed mainly between Muzaffarabad and Balakot, along the central segment of the rupture (52 km) associated with maximum slip at depth and a major portion of the energy release. Both the NW Alai segment (38 km) and SE Bagh segment (22 km) are characterized by scattered minor surface ruptures with a few centimetres of displacement, accompanied by extensive surface cracking, landslides and severe damage, concentrated in a narrow belt along the fault trace. A maximum intensity of XI on the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale and on the Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI 2007) was recorded in the epicentral area between Muzaffarabad and Balakot. Extremely severe damage and very important secondary environmental effects in the hanging wall adjacent to the trace of the causative fault plane are mainly due to near-fault strong motion and rupture directivity effects. To our knowledge, this is the first study to present field observations over the whole near-field of the earthquake, and to include the intensity map of the entire meizoseismal region.

Environmental effects from five historical earthquakes in southern Apennines (Italy) and macroseismic intensity assessment: Contribution to INQUA EEE Scale Project

This paper aims at substantiating the basic postulate of the recent Earthquake Environmental Effects (EEE) scale proposed by the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA), that primary and secondary environmental effects of earthquakes provide invaluable information on the earthquake size and intensity field, complementing but also independently testing the results of the traditional damage-based macroseismic scales. The EEE scale is applied to five disastrous earthquakes, which occurred in Southern Italy since the end of the XVII century. For each considered earthquake, the available macroseismic data have been reviewed and integrated through an updated interpretation of the original texts. The cataloguing and analysis of the seismically induced environmental effects has provided (a) a more detailed picture of the macroseismic fields, (b) the chance to test the scaling of the EEE scale with the MCS and MSK macroseismic scales, confirming its good fit with the MSK/MM, (c) I 0 estimates based on EEE scale in good agreement with I 0 assessments derived from MCS/MSK scales, (d) further constrains for the new version of the EEE scale, (e) useful data for seismic zonation. These results have confirmed once more the essential role of EEEs in the process of seismic hazard assessment and risk reduction.