Seattle Aquarium Research Articles

Rethinking project boundaries in architectural practice: attempts at ‘giving back’ in recent work by LMN Architects

ABSTRACT Project boundaries force architects to work with resources that are insufficient to meet all possible interests, raising questions of distributive justice. In settler colonial contexts, these mingle with questions of restorative justice, prompted by demands to repatriate Indigenous land and life. To foreground how questions of justice arise and are engaged with in contemporary architectural practice, I explore recent work by LMN Architects, an interdisciplinary studio active in complex scenarios with many different interests. LMN is based in Seattle, an area Native Americans inhabited long before the first European settlers. Focusing on two projects in the area – the Mukilteo Multimodal Ferry Terminal and the Seattle Aquarium Ocean Pavilion – I analyse how LMN seeks ways to involve the Coast Salish tribal communities: from programming and design; over siting, spatial organisation, and integration of public art; to material selection, sourcing, and beyond. This analysis allows understanding the studio’s attempts at ‘giving back’ in relation to their ambition to leverage a project’s opportunities beyond the boundaries of its site. Throughout their work, LMN adopts expansive notions of who is affected – by extending whose interests to meet – and what resources to distribute – by reconsidering who is invited to contribute and how invitees may benefit from that contribution.

Empathy in animal-based tourism contrasting constructed care and care ethics at a captive wildlife venue

ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to introduce the work of the eighteenth-century German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder on empathy to contemporary tourism. Animals and humans share a language of nature, which was an essential point of departure for Herder in arguing that the sensual must be elevated alongside the empirical in arriving at deeper truths. Herder’s philosophy is used as a benchmark to examine empathy-based programmes at the Seattle Aquarium, which also speaks of a language of nature through its animal-based empathy programming. A synthesis of these two bodies of knowledge, and conceptual framework, uncovers several comparatives over the ethos, pathos and logos of empathy at captive animal venues, where we must reconcile use as a function of institutional realities and the constructed care that goes into the facilitation of animal-human interactions.

Analytical Validation and Assessment of Baseline Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites in Northern Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) in Human Care

Fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs) have been used as a non-invasive and indirect measurement of the complex stress response in a variety of species. Animals in facilities under managed care allow for the longitudinal study of FGMs in a controlled environment. Animal histories often include environmental, husbandry, and medical notes that can be matched to FGM concentrations to aid in the physiological validation of adrenal stimulation and response. The goal of this study was to demonstrate analytical validations using two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (EIA) to measure FGMs from northern sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) under human care (Seattle Aquarium, Seattle, WA, USA) and to determine baseline and stress response spike levels for individual sea otters. Individual variation was found among the four subjects in the study with fecal baseline levels ranging from 20.2 to 83.7 ng/g for cortisol-immunoreactive metabolites and 52.3 to 102 ng/g for corticosterone-immunoreactive metabolites. As a retrospective study, 39 percent of hormone peaks were associated with notes and most FGM spikes were associated with veterinary procedures or days in which enrichment items were provided and produced an excitatory response. Monitoring baseline FGMs levels and events associated with hormone peak values may provide insight into effective husbandry management to improve the overall welfare of sea otters and other marine mammals.

Effects of New Seal Introductions on Conspecific and Visitor Activity.

Modern zoos and aquariums are defined by several primary goals, which include improving the welfare of their animals, public education, and inspiring visitors to develop an interest in conservation. Animal-Visitor Interactions (AVIs) (i.e., the impact of captive animals and visitors on each other) are a primary means to study these goals. The introduction of new animals into two seal exhibits-the harbor and northern fur seals-at the Seattle Aquarium presented a valuable opportunity to assess the impacts of introductions on the currently exhibited animals and aquarium visitors. The impacts of animal introductions were measured through direct observations of seal activity (i.e., ethogram behavioral observations) and visitor activity (i.e., crowd size and visitor length of stay) before and after new seal introductions. This study consisted of two experiments: Experiment 1 (Harbor seal exhibit) and Experiment 2 (Northern fur seal exhibit). In Experiment 1, we found that the introduction had few impacts on the existing harbor seals or on visitor activity. In Experiment 2, the introduction of a new fur seal had significant positive impacts on the existing fur seal, as was seen through increased social behaviors and decreased stereotypic behaviors, as well as a significant increase in crowd size post-introduction. Based on these findings, new animal introductions were associated with neutral to positive changes in both seal and visitor activity. Findings from this study suggest that studying new animal introductions can result in better understanding and promoting positive interactions with existing animals (introduction effects) and likewise positive experiences for zoo and aquarium visitors (introduction experiences).

A Unique 100 Meter Underwater Survey Method Documents Changes in Abundance, Richness, and Community Structure of Hawaiʹi Reef Fishes

Hawai′i coral reefs are essential ecosystems providing resources in the form of food and recreation as well as stabilizing nearshore biodiversity. The Seattle Aquarium has exhibited Hawai′i reef fishes and corals since the mid-1980s to educate guests about these critical ecosystems. In 2009, and in collaboration with Hawai′i’s Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR) and Washington State University, the aquarium expanded its conservation work in Hawai′i through annual surveying of eight reefs along the west coast of Hawai′i via SCUBA-based diver operated video (DOV). Five of the sites are in areas partially closed to most fishing while three sites are in areas partially open to most fishing. 100-meter DOV surveys took place a meter above a horizontal or vertical reef, and survey locations were marked with GPS and fixed underwater markings to enable annual surveys to occur in the same locations. Counts of fish species were subsequently made from the archived video. Over the 11 year dataset we documented increased total abundance at all sites and periods of increasing and decreasing species richness. Multivariate analyses comparing fish community structure before (2009-2012) and after an anomalous warm-water event (2013-2019) documented a persistent shift in community structure. This coincides with a documented marine heat wave in Hawai′i and associated coral bleaching events between 2013-2016. These results suggest that our long-term monitoring program captured a phase shift in community structure associated with changing environmental conditions. These persistent shifts may thus indicate hysteresis at relatively short temporal scales, and ongoing monitoring is required to observe whether the systems shift back to the pre-2013 community structure. As coral reef ecosystems face a multitude of stressors from warming waters to marine pollution, long-term monitoring programs are essential to illuminate trends that may inform conservation and management strategies to preserve these imperiled ecosystems.

Marine conservation tourism and the Giant Pacific Octopus: A SWOT analysis of two public engagement programs and the viability of a hybrid program at the Seattle Aquarium, Washington, USA

Marine conservation requires financial and human capital to effectively function. Tourism activities can provide both, if done responsibly. Marine conservation tourism (MCT) concerns tourist activities involving the engagement with—and the study, protection, and restoration of—marine wildlife and their ecosystems. There are two models that are commonly used: commercial and non-commercial. However, a combined hybrid MCT model may be more effective. To evaluate this potential, SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis was conducted on two representative programs at the Seattle Aquarium dedicated to the conservation of the iconic Giant Pacific Octopus (GPO). Octopus Survey Week is a non-commercial, research-focused program utilizing voluntary assistance of local divers. Octopus Week is a commercial program in which conservation goals are facilitated by visitor fees and donations from aquarium supporters. The study utilized a mixed-methods approach. Data collection (N=86) involved semi-structured interviews and focus groups. SWOT analysis was enhanced with (1) MECE (Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive) framework to identify prominent factors or themes, and (2) TOWS (Threats, Opportunities, Weaknesses, and Strengths) analysis to suggest strategies relevant to the SWOT findings. Results show Octopus Survey Week program is viable but not well known. The Octopus Week program is also viable; there is an opportunity here for improvement. Importantly, interviewees would prefer a hybrid program. However, even a hybrid program would face logistical and temporal issues. To increase public interest and participation, it is recommended that the Seattle Aquarium connect them in a more proactive manner. Looking ahead, we hope the field of marine conservation tourism will expand as researchers develop new methods to improve conservation efforts.

Temporal Variability of Microparticles Under the Seattle Aquarium, Washington State: Documenting the Global Covid-19 Pandemic.

Anthropogenic debris including microparticles (<5 mm) are ubiquitous in marine environments. The Salish Sea experiences seasonal fluctuations in precipitation, river discharge, sewage overflow events, and tourism—all variables previously thought to have an impact on microparticle transport and concentrations. Our goals are two‐fold: 1) describe long‐term microparticle contamination data including concentration, type, and size; and 2) determine if seasonal microparticle concentrations are dependent on environmental or tourism variables in Elliott Bay, Salish Sea. We sampled 100 L of seawater at a depth of approximately 9 m at the Seattle Aquarium, Seattle, Washington State, United States, approximately every two weeks from 2019 through 2020 and used an oil extraction protocol to separate microparticles. We found that microparticle concentrations ranged from 0 to 0.64 particles L−1 and fibers were the most common type observed. Microparticle concentrations exhibited a breakpoint on 10 April 2020, where estimated slope and associated microparticle concentration significantly declined. Further, when considering both environmental as well as tourism variables, temporal microparticle concentration was best described by a mixed‐effects model, with tourism as the fixed effect and the person counting microparticles as the random effect. Although monitoring efforts presented set out to identify effects of seasonality and interannual differences in microparticle concentrations, it instead captured an effect of decreased tourism due to the global Covid‐19 pandemic. Long‐term monitoring is critical to establish temporal microparticle concentrations and to help researchers understand if there are certain events, both seasonal and sporadic (e.g., rain events, tourism, or global pandemics), when the marine environment is more at risk from anthropogenic pollution. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:917–930. © 2021 Seattle Aquarium. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Decrease in Sightings of Sixgill Sharks, Hexanchus griseus, in Elliott Bay, Seattle, WA, United States, a Comparison Between 2003–2005 and 2008–2015

The Bluntnose Sixgill Shark, Hexanchus griseus, is a large predatory shark, has a worldwide distribution and is listed as near-threatened by the International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The Seattle Aquarium collected observations of free-swimming Sixgill Sharks in Elliott Bay, Washington, under the aquarium’s pier in 20 m of water from 2003 to 2005 and again from 2008 to 2015 using the same methodology. Compared to total Sixgill sightings between 2003-2005 (273) fewer total Sixgills were sighted at the aquarium’s research station between 2008-2015 (33). The reason for the observed decline in sightings in unknown but based on data from other studies on Sixgills in Puget Sound during the same timeperiod the authors hypothesize the decrease may be due to natural variability of juvenile Sixgill recruitment to Elliott Bay.

Feeding Behavior of Subadult Sixgill Sharks (Hexanchus griseus) at a Bait Station

This is the first in-situ study of feeding behaviors exhibited by bluntnose sixgill sharks. Bait was placed beneath the Seattle Aquarium pier situated on the waterfront in Elliott Bay, Puget Sound, Washington at 20m of water depth. Cameras and lights were placed around the bait box to record sixgill shark presence and behavior while feeding. Analysis of feeding behavior revealed that sixgills utilize a bite comparable to many other elasmobranchs and aquatic vertebrates, have the ability to protrude their upper jaw, change their feeding behavior based on the situation, and employ sawing and lateral tearing during manipulation. The versatility of their feeding mechanism and the ability of sixgills to change their capture and food manipulation behaviors may have contributed to the species’ worldwide distribution and evolutionary success.

Spawning Behavior of Lingcod in the Seattle Aquarium

Lingcod (Ophiodon elongates) are members of the family Hexagrammidae and are found in the northeast coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean. Hexagrammids are demersal spawners with the male fish guarding eggs until hatching occurs. The spawning behavior of Lingcod has only been observed and described once in the literature (Wilby 1937). Although other investigators have described various aspects of Lingcod life history and reproductive activity (for example, Jewell 1968; Low and Beamish 1978; LaRiviere and others 1981; Giorgi 1981; Cass and others 1990; Jagielo 1994), none directly observed spawning. Withler and others (2004) genetically evaluated progeny and documented polygamous mating by Lingcod. This note describes a Lingcod spawning event in the Seattle Aquarium and compare this spawning to that described previously by Wilby (1937). The Underwater Dome exhibit of the Seattle Aquarium is in the form of an igloo-like public observation volume immersed in a large cylindrical vessel. The vessel is approximately 20 m in diameter and 6 m deep, containing more than 1800 m of filtered seawater pumped from adjacent Elliot Bay, in an open system with the water discharged back to the bay. The surface of the vessel is not enclosed, and is protected by an awning covering a portion of the water surface. Environmental conditions inside the exhibit, such as temperature and lighting, match ambient conditions. A low-light level is maintained in the exhibit at night. The exhibit topography mimics rocky and nearshore habitat conditions found in the Salish Sea. The highrelief rocky reef structure is made of concrete, and the bottom is covered with a shallow layer of coarse beach sand. The exhibit is home to a variety of fish and invertebrate species found in local waters. The animals are fed a variety of fish and shellfish similar to their natural diet. The Lingcod feed primarily on forage fish and squid, and occasionally prey on smaller exhibit fish, usually salmonids. Lingcod in the exhibit typically spawn each season between mid-December and mid-March, usually near year-end, using one or more of 3 specific locations. Characteristics of the 3 sites are consistent with sites selected by fish in the wild (KWJ, pers. obs.), distinguished by rocky reef ledges with deep cracks or crevices suitable for deposition of egg masses, supporting the premise that physical characteristics of the exhibit are conducive for display specimens to behave and reproduce in near-natural conditions. The site of the observed spawning is an approximately parallel-sided cavity 20 cm wide between a flat-sided boulder and a vertical reef surface. The site is about 2 m from viewing windows. The dome exhibit was home to 5 adult Lingcod ranging from 75to 110-cm total length at the time of the observed spawning. Two of the fish were known to be female and 2 were known to be male. The sex of the 5th fish was unknown. The ages of the fish were also not known. Observations were visual and notes were made after the event. Measurements were made using a 1-m-long plastic tube graduated in 10-cm increments. On 1 January 2015, a pair of Lingcod spawned in the Underwater Dome exhibit of the Seattle Aquarium. The spawners were the largest female and largest male in the exhibit. The female was gravid and swollen to the point of concern by aquarium staff that she was egg-bound. The site selected by the spawners was the site most frequently used for egg laying in previous years. The male fish had established long-standing dominance of this site during the spawning season by remaining at the location, performing courtship display when females were present, and chasing other fish from the area. At approximately 08:30 Pacific Standard Time, in crepuscular conditions, the female Lingcod was observed by a maintenance diver at the spawning location. She was aligned with the cavity with her ventral side up. The fish was alternately squirming and quivering. The male was nearby (Fig. 1A). After an GENERAL NOTES

Observations on Abundance of Bluntnose Sixgill Sharks, Hexanchus griseus, in an Urban Waterway in Puget Sound, 2003-2005

The bluntnose sixgill shark, Hexanchus griseus, is a widely distributed but poorly understood large, apex predator. Anecdotal reports of diver-shark encounters in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s in the Pacific Northwest stimulated interest in the normally deep-dwelling shark and its presence in the shallow waters of Puget Sound. Analysis of underwater video documenting sharks at the Seattle Aquarium’s sixgill research site in Elliott Bay and mark-resight techniques were used to answer research questions about abundance and seasonality. Seasonal changes in relative abundance in Puget Sound from 2003–2005 are reported here. At the Seattle Aquarium study site, 45 sixgills were tagged with modified Floy visual marker tags, along with an estimated 197 observations of untagged sharks plus 31 returning tagged sharks, for a total of 273 sixgill observations recorded. A mark-resight statistical model based on analysis of underwater video estimated a range of abundance from a high of 98 sharks seen in July of 2004 to a low of 32 sharks seen in March of 2004. Both analyses found sixgills significantly more abundant in the summer months at the Seattle Aquarium’s research station.

Relatedness and polyandry of sixgill sharks, Hexanchus griseus, in an urban estuary

The bluntnose sixgill shark (Hexanchus griseus) is a widely distributed species found in tropical and temperate waters of every ocean, yet we know relatively little about their basic biology including their life history and population structure. From 2003–2007, we collected over 300 biopsy samples from sixgills during research operations in Puget Sound, WA, USA. Genotypic data using ten polymorphic microsatellites were used to describe sixgill genetic diversity, relatedness and mating pattern. Diversity within sixgills was found to be moderate with an average observed heterozygosity of 0.45, an average expected heterozygosity of 0.61, an average of 12 alleles per locus, and an average allelic richness of eight within microsatellite loci. Our data suggests all of the sampled individuals come from one intermixing population, and we found no historical evidence of significant population bottlenecks. Many of the sharks were sampled using longline techniques with several sharks captured at the same time and place. Similarly, multiple sharks were sampled on several occasions during research events at the Seattle Aquarium. The proportion of individuals that were full- or half-siblings was high among sharks sampled at the same time and place (range 0.65–0.87). Analysis of the genetic relationship between one large female washed ashore and 71 of her near-term pups suggested a polyandrous mating system with as many as nine males contributing to her offspring. This study is the first to investigate genetic diversity, relatedness and paternity within sixgill sharks and sheds light on important conservation implications for this little known shark population.

Fecal Hormones Measured within Giant Pacific Octopuses Enteroctopus dofleini

The captive husbandry of giant Pacific octopuses Enteroctopus dofleini is well understood, but their endocrine signatures are not well documented. The major vertebrate reproductive hormones--estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone--and the stress-related hormone corticosterone are relatively well known for many vertebrate species. However, few studies on these hormones within invertebrates have been conducted. Our hypothesis was that endocrine signatures within octopuses are similar to those found within vertebrates in response to reproductive activity and stress. Using standard immunoassay techniques, we measured fecal steroids within fecal samples collected from five female and three male giant Pacific octopuses housed at the Seattle Aquarium. The mean estrogen level ranged from 3.67 to 99.39 ng/g of feces, progesterone ranged from 44.35 to 231.71 ng/g feces, testosterone ranged from 9.30 to 18.18 ng/g feces, and corticosterone ranged from 10.91 to 22.14 ng/g feces. The results suggest that octopus fecal hormones are similar to those in vertebrates and may be useful in measuring ovarian activity and stress within captive female giant Pacific octopuses.

Social bacteria and asocial eukaryotes

The end of 2007 brought us draft genome sequences of two eukaryotic microorganisms, Babesia bovis and Malassezia globosa, as well as complete genomes of the ammonia-oxidizing archaeal chemoautotroph Nitrosopumilus maritimus, and several environmental bacteria (Table 1). In terms of genome size, this list covers both sides of the spectrum: the 245 kb genome of an obligate insect symbiont Sulcia muelleri is the second smallest microbial genome sequenced so far, whereas the 13 033 kb chromosome of the social myxobacterium Sorangium cellulosum breaks the record as the largest bacterial genome – and the largest DNA molecule in the prokaryotic world.

Breeding alcids at the Seattle Aquarium

Four species of alcids are maintained in an outdoor exhibit at the Seattle Aquarium. For three successive years. a pair of Tufted puffins Lunda eirrhata has hatched a chick, two of which have fledged. A Rhinoceros auklet Crrorlzinca tnonceruata pair has nested and eggs have been laid every year since 1991. Although the eggs were infertile, breeding attempts by this species are unusual in captivity. The paper describes the enclosure, diet, provision of nesting burrows. observations on breeding and notes on hand-rearing a puffin chick.

Reproductive Hormone Levels within Captive Female Northern Fur Seals (Callorhinus ursinus) with and without Chemical Contraceptives

Northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) are held in only a few institutions within the United States and the world. The Seattle Aquarium was the first institution to successfully breed and raise captive Northern fur seals from conception to adulthood. The captive group that was the focus of this study consisted of one adult male and five adult females. One female was related to the adult male and was placed on chemical contraceptives to prevent inbreeding. Another female was exposed to a chemical spill in the wild while in utero, had some health problems throughout the study period, and never became pregnant. The remaining three females were thought to be reproductively normal throughout most of the study period, although only one became pregnant and gave birth. Serum estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone levels were measured using standard competitive binding antibody radio and enzymeimmunoassay techniques. Individual animal longitudinal data are reported for samples collected over the 7-year study period. The hormone data revealed changes associated with chemical contraceptives, pregnancy, and animals becoming sexually mature and senescent.

Sea anemones of the north‐eastern Pacific: the flowers of the sea

Aquarium husbandry and distinguishing features of sea anemones of the north‐eastern Pacific are described, based on 20 years of experience at The Seattle Aquarium. Anemones are relatively easy to maintain in aquariums, one having lived for more than 66 years following standard aquarium practices. The reproduction, food requirements, predators and symbionts of anemones are described together with some intriguing aspects of the biology of sea anemones.

Nudibranchs: butterflies of the sea

Sea slug nudibranchs are exotic representatives of the Mollusca, rivalling orchids or butterflies in their beauty. Colourful nudibranchs are found in both tropical and temperate seas. Aquarium husbandry, as practised by the Seattle Aquarium, is presented here for temperate species. The nudibranchs found in the Seattle area are representative of the population on the coast of the north‐eastern Pacific Ocean, from the state of California to Alaska.

Exhibiting sea stars: Asteroidea at the Seattle Aquarium

Exhibiting sea stars: Asteroidea at the Seattle Aquarium

Exhibiting sea stars: Asteroidea at the Seattle Aquarium

Exhibiting sea stars: Asteroidea at the Seattle Aquarium