Sea Warfare Research Articles

The Significance of the San Remo Manual to Protect the Sea Defense of Indonesia

In 1994, the San Remo Manual was established as a regulation governing sea warfare, providing guidelines for countries engaged in conflicts at sea. As Indonesia holds a crucial strategic position in both regional and global sea and air zones, understanding and adhering to international law during armed conflicts at sea is of paramount importance. This research aims to offer practical guidance on the significant role of the San Remo Manual, in applying international law during sea warfare and examines its application in Indonesia. The study employs a qualitative method, which seeks to identify and understand various phenomena in-depth. By analyzing different cases and phenomena, empirical insights on the development and application of the law can be derived. The research results show a comprehensive guide for countries involved in sea conflicts, detailing permissible actions, involvement of parties, protection of injured vessels and personnel, and actions taken by non-conflicting nations. For the Indonesian Navy, implementing the San Remo Manual is vital since they operate in waters that may be prone to armed conflicts. Adhering to this manual can help regulate the conduct of naval personnel during military operations at sea, with a strong emphasis on upholding human rights and justice in the use of military force.

대잠전용 무인수상로봇의 자율운항시스템 설계를 위한 LQR 기반 경로추종 알고리즘 연구

This paper presents the usage of LQR-based intelligent path tracking methods to control the autonomous navigation system of an Unmanned Surface Robot (USR) in sea-clutter environmental fields. Since considerable interest in the Autonomous Navigation System (ANS) of USR in sea warfare has increased, the stability of the Autonomous Navigation System (ANS) control becomes of the utmost importance. When the USR moves in sea environments, the control stability of autonomous navigation systems becomes a major concern. The Path Tracking Controller (PTC) of USRs is one of the high potential subsystems that can be further improved to achieve more accurate, robust, and comfortable tracking performance. The stability of the PTC should be taken into consideration while performing the path tracking task in autonomous navigation. To solve the automatic waypoint tracking stability of independently-developed PTCs, a waypoint tracking controller is designed based on the Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) theory with the kinematic model of USRs. Then, a simulation analysis of the designed waypoint tracking controller is performed, and the results are compared at two different speeds. Additionally, complex waypoint tracking tests under realistic sea conditions are performed based on the designed waypoint tracking controller. Results show good tracking performance, which indicates that the designed waypoint tracking controller can adapt to high-speed USRs.

The Politics of South China Sea Warfare: The Multilateral Democratic Diplomacy Recourse of Mini-ASEAN Youth for Regional Security

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS 1982) adheres that a rule-based maritime order is a rudimentary concept of international law. The 2016 award by the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) on the South China Sea (SCS) has led to the continuous Chinese psychological maritime warfare in the Philippine Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The foreign policy of the President of the Republic of the Philippines (RP) has led to contradicting statements of Philippine government officials in protecting the West Philippine Sea (WPS) from the People’s Republic of China (PRC). With the 1992 ASEAN Declaration, the regional bloc may have its jurisdiction over the case; however, their principle of non-interference prevents any mechanism to settle the maritime dispute. While both juridical and political aspects were considered in resolving the Timor Sea case through conciliation, Article 298 of UNCLOS 1982 becomes the core legal collision in the SCS. Despite experts, organisations, and institutions proposing democratic initiatives through digital activism, securing and defending the WPS, however, the broader Indo-Pacific requires the democratic diplomacy recourse of a mini-ASEAN youth to coordinate with the youth from the Quad and the G7 countries to multilaterally raise the concern at the United Nations.

Perlindungan Korban Perang Laut Menurut Konvensi Jenewa dan Hukum Islam

The Second Geneva Convention of 1949 concerning the Improvement of the Condition of Wounds, Sick and Victims of the Armed Forces in the Sea, is an improvement over the Hague Convention of 1907 on the same matter. The Hague Convention of 1907 concerning the protection and improvement of the fate of victims of land warfare in conditions of war at sea. Whereas in Islamic law, sea warfare was underestimated by Islamic jurists. The lack of attention shows, that at the beginning of the growth of Islam, moslems have not realized that the sea is important, and perhaps more importantly caused Islamic power does not cover the sea, but only applies on land. Therefore they depend on qiyas rules about land warfare or the customs of other nations that has been recognized.
 Keywords: Protection of Victims of the Sea War, Geneva Conventions, Islamic law

Security of China's Marine Energy Transportation Channels and American Factors

Qian, X., 2020. Security of China's marine energy transportation channels and american factors. In: Hu, C. and Cai, M. (eds.), Geo-informatics and Oceanography. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 105, pp. 84–88. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.In recent years, China has built multiple parallel lines of land, oil, and gas pipelines and marine transportation channels through The Belt and Road initiative to form an energy transportation network that includes railways, highways, marine transportation, and oil and gas pipelines to achieve the diversification of China's energy import channels. The United States is sensitive and anxious about the growth of China's strength. It has promoted the Asia–Pacific Rebalancing strategy, implemented the concept of air–sea warfare combat, and proposed the Indo-Pacific strategy, which have a major impact on the safety of China's maritime energy transportation channels. China and the United States coexist in competition and cooperation in the security of the marine energy transportation channels. The prospect of U.S.–China interaction in the marine energy channels depends on the choices and efforts of both parties. It is necessary for both parties to jointly improve the process of interaction and seize opportunities for peace.

Причины и формы участия Британской империи в Русско-японской войне 1904-1905 гг.

The research objectives are as follows: to identify forms of the British Empire’s participation in the Russian-Japanese War, to reveal the factors that influenced the country’s political course, to evaluate the level of Britain’s involvement in combat operations in the Pacific Theatre in 1904-1905. The article considers the issue of Britain’s political, military and economic assistance to Japan. The provided factual material shows clearly the influence of Britain’s military-economic policy on the course of the battle in 1904-1905. Scientific originality of the study involves analysing previously unpublished sources revealing Britain’s influence on the course of the Russian-Japanese War. The research findings are as follows: the author identifies implicit factors that determined strategy and tactics of the sea warfare and highlights additional factors that contributed to defeat of the Russian fleet in 1905.

Interpretation of Grammatical Category of Gender by Fernão de Oliveira

The present research featured the definition of grammatical gender category as it was coined by Fernão’s de Oliveira (1507–1581), a prominent Portuguese linguist that wrote the first Grammar of the Portuguese Language (1536), where he outlaid the main principles of gender classification. The research was based on F. de Oliveira’s works, namely The Grammar of the Portuguese Language, The Art of Sea Warfare, The Voyage of Fernão de Magalhães, and The Book of Shipbuilding. The linguistic data were selected from the above-mentioned works based on linguistic criteria by the method of continuous sampling. The article also describes various gender definition methods, e.g. morphonology, morphology, anaphora, syntax, secondary morphologization, words of one flexion, and vocalic inflexion (alternation of open and closed, pure and nasal vowels). The analysis of Oliveira’s speculations on grammatical gender revealed that the Portuguese grammarian failed to cover the issues of Singularia / Pluralia tantum, grammatical doublets, toponyms, epicenes, possessive pronouns, and participles.

Nguyen Lord Navy Corps with the Protection of the Sovereignty and the Exploitation of Marine Resources in the Bien Dong (East Sea)

For over two centuries (from the 17th Century to the early 19th Century), the Nguyen Lords in Cochinchina spent a lot of efforts to develop the navy forces to protect the sovereignty of sea & islands. The navy forces in Cochinchina rapidly grew in terms of troop strength, means and weapons. The Nguyen Lords were greatly concerned about this and frequently urged the recruiting of new troops to expand the fleet. Through trade, the Nguyen Lords established close relationship with Western merchants. With their help in weapon trading and manufacturing, Cochinchina was successfully equipped with fire arms for both infantry and navy forces. The Nguyen Lords were also interested in ship building and troops drilling. War ships in this time significant advanced in technical and combat abilities and capabilities. Therefore, Nguyen Lords’ Navy achieved a lot of notable victories, keeping up with the illustrious tradition of our nation's sea warfare. Typical of these feats included - To sink Japanese pirate ships in 1585; - To defeat the attack of the Dutch East India Company fleets (Vereenigde OostIndische Compagnie, VOC) in 1643; - To fight back the British troops, occupying Kunlun Islands in 1705; etc. In addition to powerful professional army, Nguyen Lords also built many military patrols, to protect and exploit marine resources in the East Sea. The military sea patrols named Hoang Sa, Bac Hai, Que Huong, Dai Mao Hai Ba, Que Huong Ham, etc. were born one by one. They came from fishermen who voluntarily joined military forces in the capacity of draftee (in the sense of military duty personnel); therefore, they were usually called by the name of “military personnel" or "military fishermen". In addition to collecting gold, silver, tools, etc.... of shipwreck to bring back to Nguyen Lords, they were also ready to fight every enemy who violated national sea sovereignty. They really were "war heroes" on the sea. The task of “the military fisherman troops” could be said to be extremely heavy, not just for economic life, but always associated with military tasks, such as going out on reconnaissance, spying, watching out and reporting on pirates, fighting pirates to protect the East sea. They face a lot of dangers to defend the sea-land sovereignty for the nation’s welfare. In this light, “the military fisherman troops” existed throughout the reign of the Nguyen Lords and the later Nguyen dynasty. Recent new findings have reflected a lot of interesting facts about the activities of “the military fisherman troops” as well as their living on the sea during the time of their mission. With all their achievements, “the then military fisherman troops” built up beautiful images shining with patriotism and the spirit of sacrificing their life for the country. The Nguyen Lords set up the Shipping Department in charge of registering, supervising and dealing with boats and ships from abroad to supervise and control the security at the sea.

Horses, guns and governments: A comparative study of the military transition in the Manchu, Mughal, Ottoman and Safavid empires, circa 1400 to circa 1750

The experts of Western European warfare agree that Western Europe during the early modern era (i.e. the period roughly from 1500 to 1750) experienced substantial military changes. One of the crucial components of the early modern Western European military transition was the spread and development of gunpowder weapons in both land and sea warfare. Scholars disagree on the impact of the Western European military transition on the extra-European world. A comparative study of the military systems of the big Asian empires’ military system would throw light on this thorny issue, and this is the objective of the present work. This essay attempts a comparative analysis of the armies and navies of the large agrarian bureaucratic empires of Asia (Ottoman, Safavid, Manchus/Qing and the Mughals), which were major powers in terms of political, military and economic strength before the onset of industrialization around 1800. This study will focus on the question of how far the Asian polities were able to integrate gunpowder weapons into their military systems.

The Earliest Shipboard Gunpowder Ordnance: An Analysis of Its Technical Parameters and Tactical Capabilities

Few technological developments in the history of warfare have been as portentous as the appearance around the turn of the sixteenth century of effective heavy gunpowder ordnance on shipboard, which began a new era in sea warfare. Employed on Mediterranean war galleys and Portuguese caravels, the weapons marked the solution of a series of daunting technological problems discussed in this article, beginning with the appearance of gunpowder in Europe about 1300. Unlike developments on land, change was at first gradual, but shortly after 1400 the pace of development sharply accelerated to culminate in what may legitimately be termed a revolution in firepower at sea.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF ARMED CONFLICTS

This book provides a modern and basic introduction to a branch of international law constantly gaining in importance in international life, namely international humanitarian law (the law of armed conflict). It is constructed in a way suitable for self-study. The subject-matters are discussed in self-contained chapters, allowing each to be studied independently of the others. Among the subject-matters discussed are, inter alia: the Relationship between jus ad bellum / jus in bello; Historical Evolution of IHL; Basic Principles and Sources of IHL; Martens Clause; International and Non-International Armed Conflicts; Material, Spatial, Personal and Temporal Scope of Application of IHL; Special Agreements under IHL; Role of the ICRC; Targeting; Objects Specifically Protected against Attack; Prohibited Weapons; Perfidy; Reprisals; Assistance of the Wounded and Sick; Definition of Combatants; Protection of Prisoners of War; Protection of Civilians; Occupied Territories; Protective Emblems; Sea Warfare; Neutrality; Implementation of IHL.

Fleet Performance and Capability in the Eighteenth-Century Royal Navy

The peculiar nature of fleet capability and performance was a defining characteristic of sea warfare in the eighteenth century, determining both tactics and strategy. While this significance has time and again captured the attention of historians, the accuracy of the facts themselves has escaped scrutiny. S.B.A. Willis draws on contemporary sources to demonstrate that our accepted understanding of fleet capability and performance in the eighteenth-century navy is in need of revision.

Western Warfare, 1775-1882 (review)

An amazingly prolific military and diplomatic historian, Professor Black has never written a bad book and this slim but ambitious and erudite volume continues the practice. It is a continuation of his earlier book, European Warfare, 1660-1815 (1994) but in contrast with the earlier work with its emphasis on continuities it stresses change. Its emphasis remains global and inclusive. It expands the term European to Western Warfare, that is conflicts in which the West was involved. This includes developments in the New World, not only in North America but also the much-neglected Latin American wars, covering not only conflicts between states but also civil wars and insurgencies The book examines the impact of Western warfare on non-western societies. The discussion includes land and sea warfare and consideration of military capabilities in terms of organization, strategy and tactics, weaponry and fighting techniques, and the industrial and social factors of waging the various types of war, noting that military capability is not an absolute but a relative concept. Within this context the author questions whether military "modernity," regarded by most military historians as the product of a deterministic and linear development, or whether a more complex and dynamic process stressing relative capabilities, provides the best approach to understanding the military past.

War and the world: military power and the fate of continents, 1450-2000

An attempt to write a global history of warfare in the modern era. Jeremy Black, here presents a wide-ranging account of the nature, purpose and experience of war over the last half millennium. Investigating both land and sea warfare, Black examines weaponry, tactics, strategy and resources as well as the political, social and cultural impact of conflict. He takes issue with established interpretations, not least those that emphasize technology, and directly challenges the view that European military and naval forces were dominant throughout the period. European mastery at sea did not inevitably translate into equivalent success on land, he argues, and indeed many non-European military systems were formidable in their own right. Black investigates the regional political military inpact of, for example, Babur and the Mughals in 16th-century India and the Manchu conquest of China in the following century. The book argues that, in the 18th century - the focal point of Europe's military revolution - the international military balance shifted decisively. Economic growth and maritime exploration turned navies into aggressively effective instruments of power and fuelled the obsession for territorial acquisition which dominated the great powers throughout the 19th century. Linking debates on early modern history with those of more recent centuries, War and the World should be reading for students of global history and constitutes a re-examination of the role of war in the progress of nations.

The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War

How has war shaped modern society and vice versa? How has it changed over the centuries between the introduction of firearms and the invention of the atom bomb? How is war waged today? This excitingly illustrated book examines the techniques, technology, and theory of warfare from the 'military revolution' of the seventeenth century to the present day. The expert contributors explore major developments and themes, including the extraordinary achievements of Napoleon's armies; the role of nationalism in battlegrounds as various as the American Civil War and the former Yugoslavia; colonial wars; the concept and reality of 'total war'; guerrilla warfare and 'people's wars'. The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War offers a comprehensive overview of military conflict over several centuries, with fascinating thematic chapters covering air and sea warfare, combat experience, technology, and even opposition to war. Contributors...; Jeremy Black, University of Exeter; John Bourne, University of Birmingham; John Childs, University of Leeds; Jean Bethke Elshtain, University of Chicago; Alan Forrest, University of York; David French, University College London; John B. Hattendorf, Naval War College, Rhode Island; Richard Holmes, Cranfield University; Richard Overy, King's College London; Douglas Porch, US Postgraduate Naval School, Monterey, California; Adam Roberts, University of Oxford; Mark Roseman, Keele University; Philip Towle, University of Cambridge; Charles Townshend, Keele University; Martin van Creveld, Hebrew University of Jerusalem

War Crimes in International Law. Edited by Yoram Dinstein and Mala Tabory. The Hague, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1996. Pp. xiv, 469. Index. Fl 265; $177; £119.

Introduction Y. Dinstein. War Crimes: Offences and Responsibility. The Distinctions between War Crimes and Crimes Against Peace Y. Dinstein. Crimes under the I.L.C. 1995 Draft Code L.C. Green. Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind and the Recalcitrant Third State C. Tomuschat. War Crimes and State Responsibility S. Rosenne. Ethnic Cleansing N. Lerner. Violations of Human Rights in Time of War as War Crimes H.S. Levie. The Modern Pattern of War Criminality G.I.A.D. Draper. War Crimes and Punishment. The Establishment of an International Criminal Court B. Broms. A Review and Critique of the Statute of the International Tribunal J.J. Shestack. The Normative Impact on International Law of the International Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia T. Meron. The Decentralized Prosecution of International Offences through National Courts R. Wolfrum. 'Defences' in War Crime Trials A. Eser. War Crimes in Special Situations. Some Issues Relating to War Crimes in Air and Sea Warfare E. Roucounas. War Crimes in Non-International Armed Conflicts M. Bothe. Treatment of War Crimes in Peace Settlements - Prosecution or Amnesty? F. Domb. The Demjanjuk Trial. The Demjanjuk Case M. Kremnitzer. Hearsay Evidence in War Crimes Trials K. Mann. Appendices. Indices.

San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflict at Sea

The law regulating the use of force at sea has long been due fora reevaluation in the light of developments in methods and means of warfare at sea and the fact that major changes have taken place in other branches of international law of direct relevance to this issue. This need was reflected in Resolution VII of the 25th International Conference of the Red Cross, which noted that “some areas of international humanitarian law relating to sea warfare are in need of reaffirmation and clarification on the basis of existing fundamental principles of international humanitarian law” and therefore appealed to “governments to co-ordinate their efforts in appropriate fora in order to review the necessity and the possibility of updating the relevant texts of international humanitarian law relating to sea warfare”.

The Periplous

The naval tactic, the periplous, referred to by both Thucydides and Xenophon has yet to be convincingly identified by any scholar. πɛρπλους and πɛριπλω are widely used in their non-tactical sense to mean ‘a voyage round a stretch of coast’, and ‘to sail round’. The only passages in which we can be certain that Thucydides and Xenophon are writing about the naval tactic are not accounts of battles but passages setting the scene for naval battles, theorizing about sea warfare. The problem then is to separate and identify the tactical from the normal usage. If we study the nature of the theoretical periplous referred to by Thucydides and Xenophon, and then look for a battle manoeuvre of a similar nature, we may be able to make that distinction.

Aerial minelaying: Possibly the most potent sea warfare technique for the UK

Aerial minelaying: Possibly the most potent sea warfare technique for the UK

The Royal Air Force, Air Power and British Foreign Policy, 1932-37

For a considerable period the progress of the rearmament of the Royal Air Force played a pivotal part in British policy towards Germany. The Royal Navy could only act in a defensive capacity in the event of a European war, by the very nature of sea warfare. In its offensive capacity, as a blockade weapon, sea power could only have a long term effect. Moreoever, the Royal Navy was a non-variable factor. Germany had no real chance of outbuilding the British at sea although the Admiralty did also have to bear in mind in its numerical calculations the Japanese threat in the Far East and, from 1935, the Italian threat in the Mediterranean. The British Army, meanwhile, had been run down almost to a care and maintenance position since the end of the Great War. If it again became involved in a major continental war it would be many years before a decisive victory could be won in the field. To a generation which considered the slaughter of the Somme and Passchendaele battles the inevitable outcome of a major land commitment the prospect of a repeated Western Front was fearsome. To the air enthusiasts, on the other hand, air power seemed to offer the only decisive answer to the problem of British involvement in continental war. A superficial glance at the amount of time and money spent on the rearmament of the RAF strike force might lead one to conclude that the politicians held the same view. Yet when war broke out only the Royal Navy considered itself anywhere near ready to fight a major war. Basically, the reason for this was that the British government never accepted the radical change in traditional British diplomacy implied by