Sea Level Rise Research Articles

Grain fields in sea-landscapes.

Sea-level rise will increase salt intrusion and flood risk in low-lying lands. In the long run, these lands will change into seawater-influenced landscapes, as is already happening in several coastal areas around the globe. While conventional agriculture may no longer bear fruit in such sea-landscapes, the seagrass species Zostera marina, "sea-rice," potentially yields 3-7% of global rice production, with the added benefit of zero-carbon emissions. Culture of Z. marina does not require freshwater, fertilizer or pesticides. Development and implementation of seagrass mariculture will open new avenues for collaborative efforts of multiple disciplines such as agronomy, coastal engineering and social sciences. From the start, the domestication, engineering design and landscape planning should aim at the optimal balance between ecosystem goods (grains, straw and seafood) and services (coastal protection, carbon and nitrogen sequestration, filtering of pathogens and pollutants, and biodiversity) of this potential crop, while respecting and restoring the wild meadows.

Hydraulic Response to Sea Level Rise in a Coastal Aquifer Extending under the Sea with a Cut-off Wall.

Seawater intrusion can cause the freshwater-saltwater interface to move inland toward coastal freshwater aquifers. Sea level rise has become a significant driver of this phenomenon. Installing cut-off walls along coastal aquifers is an effective engineering measure to mitigate seawater intrusion. However, most analyses of groundwater flow under sea level rise, particularly with cut-off walls, primarily rely on numerical methods, with limited analytical approaches available. In this study, we developed mathematical models for groundwater flow induced by sea level rise, dividing the coastal aquifer into offshore and inland regions along the cut-off wall. An unknown flow function was introduced as a boundary condition at the shared boundary. Using homogenization and the finite Fourier transform method, we derived analytical solutions for the two regions separately. A global coupling solution, achieving hydraulic continuity between the two regions, was obtained by applying the collocation method at the shared boundary. The validity of the solution was confirmed through comparisons with finite difference numerical simulations. Furthermore, we analyzed the impacts of factors such as sea level rise amplitude and cut-off wall embedment depth on hydraulic changes. The results indicate that increases in the amplitude of sea level rise significantly amplify hydraulic head changes in the inland aquifers, while deeper embedment of the cut-off wall enhances its effectiveness in preventing seawater intrusion. However, the model does not consider density differences between freshwater and saltwater or the dynamics of the saltwater-freshwater interface.

Earth's Energy Imbalance More Than Doubled in Recent Decades

AbstractGlobal warming results from anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions which upset the delicate balance between the incoming sunlight, and the reflected and emitted radiation from Earth. The imbalance leads to energy accumulation in the atmosphere, oceans and land, and melting of the cryosphere, resulting in increasing temperatures, rising sea levels, and more extreme weather around the globe. Despite the fundamental role of the energy imbalance in regulating the climate system, as known to humanity for more than two centuries, our capacity to observe it is rapidly deteriorating as satellites are being decommissioned.

Climate change and its potential impact on the health and demographic profiles of Africa

Africa is the continent most impacted by climate change, which affects people's health directly and indirectly. The effects include infectious diseases, malnutrition, food insecurity, and damage to mental health. Africa's climate has warmed more than the global average since pre-industrial times. At the same time, the rise of sea levels along African coasts is faster than the worldwide average. The main objectives of this study are to analyze how climate change is affecting the African continent and to evaluate the impact of climate change on health and demographic profile. To analyze the impact of climate change on health, a trend analysis of demographic indicators related to climate change from the World Bank and a study of the nine climate risk profiles of African countries are carried out. With differences between countries, the climate effects will be a warmer and drier continent, with an increase in extreme weather events. Impoverished rural and urban populations will be the most affected. Climate impact and its effect on health are exacerbated by the interaction between demographic growth, urbanization, and the lack of resources, which contribute to low levels of adaptation to high-intensity meteorological phenomena.

Nature-based solutions extend the lifespan of a regional levee system under climate change

Nature-based solutions are receiving increasing attention as a cost-effective climate adaptation strategy. Horizontal levees are nature-based adaptation solutions that include a sloping wetland habitat buffer fronting a levee. They can offer a hybrid solution to reinforce traditional levees in estuarine areas—plants on the horizontal levee can provide wave attenuation benefits as well as habitat benefits, but how the design of horizontal levees influences risk of levee failure remains unquantified. We use a hydrodynamic model, XBeach non-hydrostatic (XB-NH), to assess the stability and sustainability of existing levees and determine how hybrid nature-based climate adaptation measures can reduce the risk of overtopping on levees in San Francisco Bay. We compare overtopping rates in the existing levee system and in a variety of nature-based adaptation scenarios using a range of widths and slopes of horizontal levees to assess how horizontal levees perform in reducing risk of flooding, both with present day conditions and sea level rise. We show that climate change will challenge existing levee flood defenses in San Francisco Bay and increase the risk of overtopping, and that the nature-based solution of horizontal levees can meaningfully reduce risk of overtopping while simultaneously supporting marsh habitat. Flood risk reduction and habitat provision are both maximized with more gradually sloping and wider horizontal levee designs. Results show that the risk of overtopping can be reduced by up to 30% with horizontal levees. This analysis provides insight into horizontal levee design considerations and a methodological approach to adapt levees to prepare for climate change in urban wave-exposed estuaries. We show that horizontal levees can support preparation for the projected impacts of sea level rise (SLR) while simultaneously providing new intertidal wetland habitat.

Bridging the gap in flood risk communication: a comparative study of community and organizational social media posts using natural language processing

Floods are prevalent disasters in the United States (U.S.), with escalating risks due to climate change-induced factors like rising sea levels and erratic rainfall patterns. While organizational efforts to mitigate the social and economic impacts of floods exist, there is a continued need for innovative approaches to flood management, particularly in flood risk communication. Currently, flood risk communication remains largely one-directional (i.e., communication comes from organizational entities such as emergency services or the media and is not necessarily informed or updated by community need, which can limit preparedness and response capabilities). Prior studies have found that social media platforms offer valuable opportunities for more interactive and real-time dialogue during disasters, including flood events. Additionally, there is an established body of research exploring the communication relationships between communities and organizational entities, respectively; highlighting opportunities to better develop pathways for two-way communications. Our study builds upon this literature by examining the alignment between community and organizational messages on social media during a series of flooding events affecting nine U.S. states from July 2022 to August 2022. Specifically, the study uses Natural Language Processing (NLP) to compare the content, sentiment, and emotion of messages from each entity to assess whether organizational communications reflect public needs and effectively foster two-way communication. Results reveal key temporal and spatial trends in message frequency and topic focus across communities and organizational entities, from which we develop five targeted recommendations designed to support the execution of more effective two-way flood communication. Future work will provide further insights into tailoring communication strategies to more diverse populations and circumstances.

Annual mass change of the world's glaciers from 1976 to 2024 by temporal downscaling of satellite data with in situ observations

Abstract. Glaciers, distinct from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, play a crucial role in Earth's climate system by affecting global sea levels, regional freshwater availability, nutrient and energy budgets, and local geohazards. Past assessments of regional to global glacier mass changes were limited in spatial coverage, temporal resolution, and/or temporal coverage. Here, we present a new observation-based dataset of glacier mass changes with global coverage and annual resolution from 1976 to 2024. We use geostatistical modeling for the temporal downscaling of decadal glacier-wide elevation change estimates derived from satellite and airborne geodetic data, with glaciological annual in situ observations. In more detail, we spatially interpolate the annual mass balance anomalies from sparse in situ observations and calibrate them to glacier-wide long-term trends from elevation change observations available for individual glaciers for varying time periods and with global glacier coverage from 2000 to 2019. We then extrapolate the results to yearly time series starting between 1915 and 1976, depending on the regional data availability, and extending to 2024. The time series are calculated separately for each of the world's glaciers and then aggregated to gridded (0.5° latitude and longitude), regional, and global estimates of annual glacier mass changes. Since 1976, Earth's glaciers have lost 9179 ± 621 Gt (187 ± 20 Gt per year) of water, contributing 25.3 ± 1.7 mm (0.5 ± 0.2 mm per year) to the global mean sea level rise. About 41 % (∼ 10 mm) of this loss occurred in the last decade, with 6 % (∼ 1.5 mm) occurring in 2023 alone, the record-breaking year of glacier mass loss. We review the strengths and limitations of our new dataset, validate and discuss related uncertainty estimates in a leave-one-out/block-out cross-validation exercise, and compare our results to earlier assessments. The annual mass change time series for individual glaciers and the derived global gridded annual mass change product are available from the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS) at https://doi.org/10.5904/wgms-amce-2025-02 (Dussaillant et al., 2025).

The system of atmosphere, land, ice and ocean in the region near the 79N Glacier in northeast Greenland: synthesis and key findings from the Greenland Ice Sheet–Ocean Interaction (GROCE) experiment

Abstract. The Greenland Ice Sheet has steadily lost mass over the past decades, presently representing the second-largest single contributor to global sea-level rise. In line with the rest of the Greenland Ice Sheet, the glaciers draining the northeast Greenland ice stream have been observed to retreat and thin. Here, we present a comprehensive study of processes affecting and being affected by the mass balance of marine-terminating and peripheral glaciers in northeast (NE) Greenland. Our focus is on the 79N Glacier (79NG), which hosts Greenland’s largest floating ice tongue. We provide new insight into the ice surface melt, the ice mass balance, glacier dynamics, the regional solid Earth response, the ocean-driven basal melt and the consequences of meltwater discharge into the ocean. Our study is based on field observations, remote sensing and simulations with numerical models of different complexity, most of them originating from the Greenland Ice Sheet–Ocean Interaction (GROCE) experiment. We find the overall negative climatic mass balance of 79NG to co-vary with summertime volumes of supraglacial lakes and show that the spatial pattern of the overall negative ice mass balance for NE Greenland is mirrored by the pattern of glacial-isostatic adjustment. We find near-coastal mass losses of both marine-terminating and peripheral glaciers in NE Greenland to be of a similar magnitude in the last decade. In contrast to the neighboring Zachariæ Isstrøm, 79NG – despite experiencing massive thinning of the floating tongue – has resisted an acceleration of ice discharge across the grounding line due to buttressing imposed by lateral friction of the 70 km long ice tongue in the narrow glacial fjord. Observations and models employed in this study are consistent in terms of melt rates occurring below the floating ice tongue. Our results suggest that the multidecadal warming of Atlantic Intermediate Water flowing into the cavity below the ice tongue – supplied by the recirculating branch of the West Spitsbergen Current in Fram Strait – is the main driver of the recent major increase in basal melt rates. We find that the meltwater leaving the cavity toward the ocean at subsurface levels quickly dilutes on the wide shelf. The study concludes by summarizing important estimates of changes to the state of the atmosphere, ice, land and ocean domains.

Asymmetric morphodynamics of the Wadden Sea

Shallow coastal systems with tidal flats and barrier islands are valuable assets to coastal protection and unique habitats with thriving biodiversity. Sea level rise threatens to diminish these systems unless sediment accretion compensates submergence. To quantify these dynamics for the world’s largest channel-shoal system, the Wadden Sea, an observed geomorphological time series was created and assessed over three decades. We found how (i) accretion-erosion was asymmetric from deep to shallow, (ii) topographic steepening occurred, and (iii) the morphological evolution was systematic across tidal basins. Peak accretion was observed below tidal low and above tidal high water, while the greatest erosion was found at intermediate subtidal elevations. Most intertidal areas accreted faster than sea level rise, and accretion was prominent at the channel-flat and flat-marsh interfaces. The simultaneous deepening of tidal channels leads to topographic steepening. Overall, the current net sediment import of the Wadden Sea is 19.7 Mm³/yr.

From Climate Risks to Resilient Energy Systems: Addressing the Implications of Climate Change on Indonesia’s Energy Policy

Climate change has presented significant challenges to Indonesia’s energy sector, increasing vulnerabilities in power generation, infrastructure resilience, and energy security. Rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and increasing temperatures disrupt energy systems, highlighting the urgent need to build resilient energy systems. To support Indonesia’s energy transition, this study addresses a critical gap by providing an integrated analysis of climate resilience, renewable energy policies, and Indonesia’s socio-economic and environmental goals, emphasizing the importance of enabling policies and financial mechanisms. The recommendations mentioned in this study include increasing renewable energy capacity through solar and geothermal projects, modernizing infrastructure to enhance resilience, and adopting decentralized energy systems to reduce dependency on centralized networks. Strengthened governance and stakeholder collaboration are also essential for the successful implementation of energy policies. This study underscores the importance of having comprehensive energy policies to address climate change, promote sustainable development, and help Indonesia achieve its renewable energy targets and long-term goal of net-zero emissions.

Mitigation Measures for Climate Change: An Environmental and Public Health Emergency

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), established in 1988, is an international organization responsible for assessing climate change, its progression, and associated impacts. To date, six Assessment Reports (AR1 to AR6) have been published, presenting the scientific foundations, observed and projected effects, as well as mitigation and adaptation strategies. The objective of this study was to evaluate the main environmental and human health impacts described in the IPCC reports, as well as to identify the mitigation measures recommended. The methodology employed consisted of a systematic documentary review of the six IPCC Assessment Reports: AR1 (1990), AR2 (1997), TAR (2001), AR4 (2007), AR5 (2014), and AR6 (2021). The reviewed documents highlight a range of environmental impacts, including the rise in average global temperatures, sea level rise, and the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. In the field of health, notable concerns include the rise in heat-related illnesses, respiratory diseases, vector-borne outbreaks, and threats to food and water security. Among the identified mitigation strategies are the transition to renewable energy sources, the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, and the development of integrated policies with differentiated responsibilities. The implications of this study emphasize the urgency of implementing strong public policies and coordinated actions among governments, businesses, and communities, with the goal of building a sustainable and resilient development model. Adopting these measures is essential for protecting the environment and public health for current and future generations.

Concrete design and biotic colonization at the interface with the human user

ABSTRACT Concrete coastal structures, at the interface of land and sea, are increasing in response to population pressure and rising sea levels. Maximizing biodiversity on these artificial structures is being approached using various eco-engineering methods, as an opportunity for bioreceptivity, but less attention has been given to how their biotic colonization will affect human users. Biotic composition and succession have an impact on the human use of the structures, as algae have varying levels of slipperiness, hence danger for users, and also influence degradation of concrete. The ecological engineering study reported in this article determined variation in biotic colonization among different concrete designs. Experimental blocks were deployed for 1 year in the intertidal zone to test differences in colonization among (i) a range of concrete mixes: manufactured with ordinary Portland cement (OPC); rapid hardening Portland cement (RHPC); OPC with microsilica (MS); and OPC with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and (ii) different surface texture: surface obtained with controlled permeability formwork (CPF); trowel finished surface; surface obtained with wooden formwork; and patterned finish. Differences in algal colonization among different concrete mixes persisted for 9 of 12 months, with microsilica concrete having consistently higher algal coverage than other types of concretes. Surface finishes had a greater effect: in particular on CPF blocks, low algal growth and high grazer activity left the surface clear after 1 year of deployment, whereas trowel, formwork and patterned finishes had increasingly rapid colonization. Understanding the significance of concrete engineering techniques for ecological processes of an increasingly man-made coastline interfaces engineering with biology and applies to coastal ecosystems worldwide. Our study has shown through the integration of ecology and concrete engineering technology that techniques such as using CPF can greatly influence the resulting assemblages and hence affect attributes such as slipperiness (for users) and the speed of concrete erosion.

Green Infrastructure’s Role in Climate Change Adaptation: Summarizing the Existing Research in the Most Benefited Policy Sectors

Extreme climate change is today’s world’s most pressing and challenging problem. Increases in greenhouse gas emissions, the warming of the atmosphere and ocean, increased precipitation, rising sea levels, and temperature rise are the major effects of climate change that significantly affect urban infrastructure. Green Infrastructure (GI) is an increasingly acknowledged tool for climate change adaptation that contributes to sustainable urban and rural development. This study reviewed 111 research articles to identify and summarize the research findings about the role of GI in climate change adaptation. Furthermore, the research articles are grouped into three sectors with the most benefits of green infrastructure in climate change adaptation: mitigating urban heat islands, increasing ecosystem resilience, and flood risk management. The literature was further divided according to the developed or utilized strategies and techniques. The findings suggest that the topic of GI’s role in climate change adaptation is very current and it has been studied frequently in the last five years.

Spatial Knowledge: A Tool for Community Planning and Addressing Environmental Issues in Regional Context?

This study investigates the implementation of participatory mapping activities with indigenous communities to uncover their spatial understanding of environmental issues in regional context. By combining participatory GIS with a phenomenological approach, the research aims to extract critical environmental concerns and develop prioritization schemes for planning and conservation efforts, particularly in forest and small island communities. Two case studies were conducted: the Orang Rimba community in Jambi, Indonesia, and the Lovongai community in New Ireland Province, Papua New Guinea. Workshops and training sessions were held with small group in each community to identify and discuss local environmental challenges. The study revealed that the Orang Rimba community primarily concerns the decline of medicinal plant species and the threat on animal habitats, while the Lovongai community faces the pressing threat of sea-level rise. Through participatory mapping and collaborative efforts with local governments and NGOs, both communities developed potential solutions to address their respective environmental issues. It is recommended that future studies explore the long-term impacts of participatory mapping initiatives on community empowerment, environmental stewardship, and sustainable development.

The impact of climate change on underground transport infrastructure: a review

Climate change presents a serious challenge to underground transport infrastructure. Rising temperatures and extreme weather events (EWEs) are causing an increase in geotechnical and structural difficulties. This review looks at important climate-related impacts, such as: (1) sea level rise, which heightens the risk of flooding, increases hydrostatic pressure, and leads to saltwater intrusion, affecting structural stability; (2) EWEs, including heavy rainfall and extreme temperatures, which weaken soils, cause cracks in tunnel linings, and put stress on drainage systems; (3) fluctuations in groundwater, which result in settlement, deformation, seepage, and corrosion; and (4) changes in soil composition due to droughts, floods, and freeze–thaw cycles, diminishing underground stability. These environmental changes have a greater effect on coastal and densely populated urban areas, where increased risks worsen infrastructure weaknesses. A comprehensive approach is necessary to adapt designs, improve geotechnical resilience, and reduce climate-induced risks. This study emphasises the need to incorporate adaptive strategies into infrastructure planning to guarantee long-term safety, functionality, and sustainability. By considering the interactions between climate change and underground systems, this review highlights the importance of proactive measures to safeguard essential transport networks in an environment that is rapidly changing.

Sea-level scenarios aligned with the 3rd adaptation plan in France

As part of its third national adaptation plan to climate change, France is developing new scenarios approximately aligned with the current commitments of states to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and anticipating 3 °C of global warming by 2100. Here, we present sea-level projections aligned with this assumption. New methodological developments include a statistical treatment to ensure the continuity of trends and uncertainties before and after 2100. Our results show that there is a probability of approximately 50% that the sea-level rise guidance of 60 cm—used for coastal risk prevention in France—will be exceeded by 2100 at 3 °C global warming levels (GWL). This no longer provides safety margins expected in 2011 based on the 4th Assessment Report of the IPCC, suggesting an update is now needed. The sea-level scenarios presented here might support the 3rd National Adaptation Plan, published in March 2025. While the publication of the plan was generally welcomed, concerns were raised regarding the lack of specific adaptation objectives in coastal areas and uncertainties regarding the potential use and enforcement of the new climate change scenario. We argue that an open debate on the political choices involved in coastal adaptation would build an opportunity to create more resilient coastal zones for the benefits of human communities and for economic activities and coastal ecosystems.

The Topset‐Foreset Rollover Does Not Coincide With Real Shoreline Positions in Clinoforms Over Substrate Deformation

AbstractShoreline trajectories are migration path lines of topset‐foreset rollovers in clinoforms. Stratigraphic trajectory analysis is largely based on its reflection of historical shoreline positions. However, this assumption is valid only when the substrate remains stable. In this study, we conducted numerical simulations and quantitative analyses to investigate the impact of gravity‐driven deformation on shoreline trajectories. In a simulation with a rigid substrate, the shoreline trajectory initially moved basinward and then retreated landward, following the theoretical autoretreat in response to steady relative sea level (RSL) rise. In a simulation with a viscous substrate, the occurrence of syn‐depositional deformation resulted in a much more complex shoreline trajectory, even with the same sediment supply and sea level rise. Our findings explicitly demonstrate that shoreline trajectory is not only controlled by the sediment supply and RSL change but also substrate deformation. Identifying syn‐depositional deformation is critical in reconstructing shoreline evolution and avoiding misinterpretation.

An Eco-Critical Comparison of Environmental Crisis in The Water Knife and New York 2140

This paper compares how The Water Knife by Paolo Bacigalupi and New York 2140 by Kim Stanley Robinson show the effects of climate change and environmental crisis. Using eco-criticism, the study explores how both novels imagine future worlds shaped by water scarcity, rising sea levels, and social inequality. It looks at how people survive in these harsh conditions and how the environment shapes politics, economy, and daily life. The paper shows how both authors use fiction to warn about real-world environmental problems and the urgent need for change.

Transience of Coastal Water Table Rise in Response to Sea-Level Rise.

Coastal shallow groundwater is susceptible to adverse sea-level rise (SLR) impacts. Existing research primarily focuses on SLR-induced salinization of coastal aquifers. There is limited understanding of the magnitudes and rates of water table rise in response to SLR, which could lead to groundwater flooding and associated infrastructure challenges. This study used a variable-density groundwater flow model to quantify the transient movement of the water table in response to various SLR scenarios and rates, considering a range of aquifer parameters for both fixed-head and fixed-flux inland boundary conditions. The SLR scenario based on realistic and progressive SLR projections resulted in a smaller water table rise than the instantaneous or gradual SLR scenarios at 100 years, despite a final identical SLR. Rates of water table rise were always less than SLR, decreased with distance from the coastline, and were proportional to SLR. The magnitude and rate of water table rise in response to SLR were largest for fixed-flux conditions. It also took longer for the rate of water table rise to equilibrate after the commencement of SLR for fixed-flux conditions than for fixed-head conditions. As such, fixed-flux conditions represent a greater hazard for water table rise, and the maximum impact may not be experienced for decades. This delayed response poses challenges to planners and managers of coastal groundwater systems. Introducing a drain reduced water table rise more on the inland side of the drain than on the coastal side. Subsurface infrastructure may limit SLR impacts, but further effects need to be carefully considered.

Sustainability of Fisheries in the Context of Climate Change and Variability in the Zanzibar Archipelago

Approximately 10 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa depend on fisheries as their primary source of livelihood. An additional 90 million participate in fishing as a supplementary source of income. Climate change is significantly impacting fish populations and their ecosystems. Key factors include rising sea temperatures and increasing sea levels. Furthermore, alterations in ocean currents, heightened salinity due to evaporation, and the occurrence of more frequent and intense cyclones also contribute to these disruptions. This study examines the impacts of climate change on the sustainability of fisheries in North Unguja, Zanzibar. Specifically, it seeks to address the following questions; How do fishers perceive the changing climate? To what extent is the fishery affected by the impacts of climate change? How do fishers adapt to the changing climate? This study collected both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data were gathered through a questionnaire survey, while qualitative data were obtained from key informant interviews. Climate data from the Tanzania Meteorological Authority (TMA) on temperature and rainfall (1992-2023) were also used. Quantitative data were analysed descriptively using SPSS, and qualitative data were examined through content analysis, involving the coding of data and drawing conclusions from emerging themes. The findings revealed that the climate is changing, characterised by an increase in temperature, alterations in rainfall patterns, a rise in sea level, and an increase in the frequency and intensity of storms. The meteorological temperature and rainfall data from the Tanzania Meteorological Agency corroborated the perceptions of the fishers. The study also revealed a decrease in fish catch, partially attributed to the impacts of climate change, which could lead to increased poverty and malnutrition in North Unguja, Zanzibar. Additionally, the findings indicated that over 81 percent of respondents have not implemented any adaptation strategies, despite their awareness of climate change. This may be attributed to the low adaptive capacity of fishers in the study area. In general, climate change poses a significant threat to the sustainability of fisheries in North Unguja, Zanzibar, and jeopardises progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly in relation to poverty reduction (Goal 1) and food security (Goal 2). This study recommends that the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar, along with relevant stakeholders, enhance the adaptive capacity of fishers by facilitating access to advanced fishing vessels for exploring new fishing grounds. Additionally, it advocates for fisheries research institutes to focus on the development of climate-resilient fish species. Furthermore, fishers in North Unguja and surrounding areas should explore alternative livelihoods and diversify their income sources to bolster resilience against both current and future climate-related impacts.