Early Nomads Research Articles

REGIONAL FEATURES OF THE INTERSECTION OF ECO- AND RURAL TOURISM IN VINNYCHCHYNA DURING MARITAL STATE

The article examines the tourist potential of the Vinnytsia region and determines that the region has significant natural and recreational potential for the development of ecological and rural tourism. It has been established that the development of these types of tourism is due to the increase in demand for domestic tourism as a result of the war in Ukraine. Therefore, the main consumers of eco- and rural tourism services in Vinnytsia region are internally displaced persons, as well as connoisseurs of Ukrainian folk traditions due to the attractiveness of the nature, its environmental friendliness and rural lifestyle. Regulatory and legal documents regulating rural tourism, namely the Regional Development Strategy of the Vinnytsia Region until 2027, as well as the main directions of activity of the public organization «Vinnytsia Regional Branch of the Association for the Promotion of the Development of Rural Green Tourism in Ukraine» were studied. The tourist route Camino Podoliсo or St. Jacob’s Way, which covers two regions of Khmelnytskyi and Vinnytsia, was studied. It was found that this project is a unique opportunity to gain impressions from getting to know the unique sights, customs and traditions and natural features of Podillia. The significant areas of Vinnytsia region, the village of Busha of the Yampil district, on the territory of which there are outstanding monuments of the archaeology and architecture of the famous Bushan relief (carved out of stone in the Rock Temple by the hands of our glorious ancestors) and the remains of the Bushan fortress – a stone tower, the Haydamatskyi ravine, the remains of multi-layered settlements of Trypillia, Chernyakhiv, Penkiv and Scythian cultures, a medieval cemetery. The possibilities of Mogilev-Podilskyi, Barskyi and Vinnytsia districts regarding the development and intersection of eco- and rural tourism in wartime are also described. In the article, with the help of a SWOT analysis, the strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the development of eco- and rural tourism in Vinnytsia are given. It was found that the combination of eco- and rural tourism is a necessary condition for the economic development of rural areas, and rural recreation should strengthen the ecological awareness of tourists in order to preserve the environment.

KozhukhovaE.I., MustafinKh.Kh., SemenovV.A., UchanevaE.N. Reconstructing Ethnocultural Processes in the Sausken Valley (Tuva) during the Later Half of the 1st Millennium BC

The article represents findings of the group research devoted to reconstructing ethnocultural processes of the second half of the 1st millennium BC (Sausken Terrain Feature, Tuva). The research comprehensively studies local population groups who left behind their burial monuments in Eerbek River Valley. The study engages geneticist, ancient technologies experts, anthropologists and archaeologists. Kurgans of the middle and late Uyuk-Sagly Culture (5th–2nd century BC) were excavated in 2011–2016 by Tuva archaeological expedition arranged by the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute for the History of Material Culture. Nearly all burials in the kurgans had been robbed back in the ancient days. The study analyses above-ground structures and internal layouts of the kurgans, the burial ritual and tools (weapons, mirrors, belt accessories, bone items, embellishments). It allows to conclude that the kurgans have varying cultural attributions. The research also implies instrumental process analysis of glass and stone beads, chromatography of fabrics and proteomic analysis of archaeological leather. The paper reveals radiocarbon dating (14C) and correlations with other burial monuments of the Scythian Tuva. Craniological materials analysed allow to determine populations that could have been related to the aliens who arrived at the Eerbek River Valley in the Uyuk times. The Ozen-Ala-Belig groups differ from their peers from other territories in Tuva. It might be explained through the Uyuyk migrants mixing with the Eerbek Valley people who had been living there since the late Bronze Age. The paleogenetic study of 19 items especially focuses on researching the Y-chromosome DNA. For many researched samples the study determines haplogroups Q1b1a3-L330 and R1a1a1b2-Z93 (or its subgroups). The area of spread for these haplogroups is Soviet Central Asia, Central Asia, West and South Siberia. One samples is assigned to I2a1b1-M223 haplogroups with the area of spread in the Balkans and South-Eastern Europe. The obtained findings may indicate that the Western and Eastern nomads kept in touch during the researched period. The archaeological, anthropological and genetic data lead to a conclusion that the Scythian cultures in the given region is complex and multi-faceted.

Scythian Dagger from Pilyugino village (South Urals) with Zoomorphic and Ornamental Hilt Decorations

The article publishes information about a series of daggers of the Scythian period from the Urals with zoomorphically decorated and patterned grips. They fit into a series of iron blades with similar decorations. This series has eastern origins, but is closely connected with the Southern Urals. Twelve daggers discovered in different years in the Southern Urals are distinguished by both a unified artistic program for the decoration of iron daggers and swords, and labour-intensive manufacturing. The hilts of the daggers bear heraldic schemes combining predators, traditional Scythian mythology and a unified visual tradition. This series of weapons belongs to the Filippovka cultural horizon of the 5th–4th centuries BC. The author considers this series of blades to be inherent in the Scythian culture and in no way connected with the culture of the historical Sarmatians. This culture formed in the Urals of the 6th–4th centuries BC. It is interpreted as a Scythian phenomenon that existed in the region until the late 4th century BC. In the historical context it can be identified with the culture of the so-called “deposited Scythians” of Herodotus. Chance finds of daggers may mark trade routes along the edge of the steppe zone along which caravan roads passed. These routes were controlled by the Scythian nomads. They used swords and daggers for ritual ceremonies (prayers to the god of war, or commemoration of fallen heroes, etc.). In such ritual places along trade routes, daggers were left behind, which explains why “accidental” finds of Scythian swords and daggers are so frequent in present days.

Aral Sea Saka Tribes Study Based on Egistic Mausoleum Materials

The study analyses the Chirik-Rabat craniological data. The analysis includes new anthropological materials from the East-Aral Sea Egistic mausoleum. The collection is represented with 13 craniums – 6male and 7 female ones. A series of monuments was discovered between 1957 and 1961. These monuments date back to 3–2 centuries BC. The data provided by the authors are a significant addition to the already published researches. Some craniums have traces of the beshik cradle artificial cranial deformation. It was frequent in the Central Asia Saka people. Individuals were found with applanation on the back of their heads. It allows to conclude that early nomads often used beshik cradles because they led a nomadic lifestyle in the North Eurasia arid zone. 31% of the skulls have osteomas. This allows the conclusion on the burial ground being designed for families and the individuals being blood-related. The Chirik-Rabat craniological data have a vast amount of comparative data. The canonical analysis showed that the male artefacts belonged to the descendants of the preceding population. Besides the male skulls appeared to be close to both the neighbouring Saka tribes, Volga, Ural and West Kazakhstan Sarmatians. Whereas female artefacts showed no sign of descending from the early Saka population of the stated region. The study shows that these findings are associated with the Sauromatian-Sarmatian type of the Volga-Ural and Lower Volga population. This statement questions the theory of close contacts with both neighbouring communities and nomad Sarmatians of the Ural River basin.

Impossible homecomings in the Scythian logos of Herodotus

AbstractThis paper explores the theme of the homecoming (nostos) by examining the homecomings of the Scythians in Book Four of The Histories of Herodotus from two different approaches, the philological and historical. As Herodotus makes clear, for Scythians, such as the famous traveler Anacharsis and the Scythian king Scyles, returning home could be deadly. From the philological approach, which emphasizes the literary nature of the Scythian logos, this pattern of thematic repetitions of denied homecomings serves to emphasize the hostile nature of Scythia for outsiders and thus to increase the tension surrounding the outcome of the larger narrative of Book Four, which describes the disastrous military campaign of the Persian king Darius I in Scythia. However, from the historical approach, which regards the account of Herodotus as a historical source that provides valuable testimony when combined with other sources of evidence, it becomes clear that these stories of impossible homecomings also reflect the conditions at the Greek frontier of the Scythian world and for Scythians like Anacharsis and Scyles who adopted foreign customs, especially Greek religious practices, namely that in this region marked by competition and conflict, including religious conflict, adopting foreign customs meant it was not possible to return home again.

Ceramic Dishes Were from the Don Settlements of Gorodets Culture

The author characterizes the ceramic complex of the Gorodets culture settlements, widespread in the second half of the 1st millennium BC in the forest-steppe part of the Don basin. It consists of molded earthenware for kitchen purposes; there are practically no tableware. The pottery had both a smoothed and relief-shaped outer surface (“matting”, “mesh”, “grooved”). The main mineral impurity added to the molding mass during their manufacture was grus (crushed mineral rocks). Sand and chamotte (crushed ceramics) were often used. The dominant type of dishes were pots, the appearance of which is given by 24 reconstructed specimens. Three main and several single varieties of shape of these vessels have been identified. Less numerous are jars and cups, of which three were found in their “whole” form. A significant part of the vessels were undecorated, but most ones were decorated with finger tucks, notches, punctures. The spread of well-profiled pots in the Gorodets environment, which replaced jar forms, is explained by economic interaction with the Scythian culture, whose area covered the southern part of the region.

Two Cimmerian Steles from the North-West Black Sea Region

New finds of stone sculptures from the epoch of early nomads are quite rare. Therefore, the publication of such new sculptures of pre-Scythian times, besides, two more at once, should be of interest. Moreover, both steles were found in a very limited area of the North-Western Black Sea region and each of them has a unique iconography and a rather original repertoire of objects. The stele from Kairy village is a type of pillar-shaped sculpture. The most original image on it is a round shield with a very rich ornamental composition. The stele from Aleksandrovka belongs to the stele-slabs. This type of sculpture is possibly an intermediate link between purely phallomorphic (Cimmerian) and anthropomorphic (Scythian) sculptures. Since markers of relative chronology are columnar and slab steles – the first are early, the second – late, this may mean that in the upper reaches of the Tiligul estuary in a fairly limited area, the tradition of installing the Cimmerian sculptures persisted for quite a long time.

Golden Swords of the Early Nomads of Eurasia: A New Classification and Chronology

The “ceremonial” forms of swords and daggers—that is, bladed weapons decorated with precious metals—occupy a special place in the culture of the early nomads. For the Scythian period, we know at least 76 ceremonial objects from 61 sites, corresponding to 3.5% of the total sample. More than half of the finds come from the northern Black Sea region (mainly Ukraine). Ceremonial forms are represented in all morphological categories (from daggers to extra-long swords), but their distribution is slightly different. Most akinakai belong to the average and long swords. Most Scythian akinakai in Eurasia belong to the dagger and short sword groups. Although most Scythian swords and daggers fall into the Middle Scythian period, most ceremonial forms belong to the last phase of Classical Scythian culture. This period is a veritable “golden autumn” of Scythia with its huge royal burial mounds and abundance of gold, perfectly illustrating our argument that conspicuous consumption coincides with periods of political and social instability. After the peak of the proliferation of ceremonial akinakai in the third quarter of the 4th century BC, we observe a generation later the complete disappearance of Classical Scythian culture, along with its characteristic weapons, horse harnesses, and animal style.

Vanished civilisation hidden treasure theories analysis

The research relevance is determined by the substantial potential of the scientific search for information and sources on the life of the Scythians. Since the 18th century, researchers have thoroughly begun to approach the excavation of Scythian mounds in search of legendary treasures. Periodic finds with significant accompanying material memos provide more and more reasons to assert that the Scythian Herrhos, about which Herodotus wrote, really existed, but its location is still a mystery. This study presents the main versions and theories about the hidden treasures of the vanished Scythian civilization. The study involves the analysis of key hypotheses about the location of Scythian treasures and their correlation with objectively possible historical circumstances of their existence and location. The leading approach in the study is the analytical method, alongside synthesis, analogy, induction, deduction, comparative, systemic, and reductionism. As a result, the most common theories about the existence of Scythian treasures were presented, along with arguments confirming or refuting these positions using written evidence and archaeological materials. The study focuses on such an important aspect of Scythian culture as archaeological excavations and their legitimacy. The growing black archaeology issue is most presented in the case of the Scythian mounds, which greatly complicates scientific activity and casts doubt on the authenticity of the materials discovered as a result of excavations of already robbed burials. The materials of the study are of particular value to anyone interested in Scythian culture, including the sphere of scientific interests of historians, archaeologists, geologists, writers, etc. The investigation of the Scythians and their life remains a promising scientific area, which provides for further archaeological excavations, the examination of material and written sources, the analysis of information of various kinds considering cross-cultural studies, based on the area of distribution of finds of the Scythian period

«ЭЛЛИНЫ» ИЛИ «СКИФЫ»: ПРОБЛЕМА ИНОКУЛЬТУРНЫХ ВЛИЯНИЙ В СЕВЕРНОМ КИТАЕ ВО ВТОР. ПОЛ.I ТЫС. ДО Н.Э.

China’s contacts with the Greek world, as shown in previous research, are chronologically extensive. It is certain that they began in antiquity and continued until the developed Middle Ages (Roman Embassy to the Song China). However, in domestic and foreign scientific literature there are often very dubious examples of the Far East and Hellenic culture links. In this article we will examine some of them. It is noteworthy that in the Greek-Chinese contacts study it is often necessary to decide questions concerning the ethno cultural situation in the «world of early nomads». The latter extended from the Northern Black Sea to Transbaikalia and Ordos. The article also considers the problem of correlation of «ethnonyms» from narrative sources with archaeological cultures, the sites of which were found in the north of the People’s Republic of China.

A NEW FIND OF A KUBAN-TYPE HELMET FROM THE NORTHWEST CAUCASUS

The article publishes the discovery of a new cast helmet of the “Kuban type” of the Early Scythian culture. The helmet is considered against the background of other similar cast helmets from the territory of Eastern Europe dating from the 7th–6th centuries BC. The authors discuss an assumption of the origin of East European cast helmets from the prototypes of the Zhou period from Northern China. Special attention is paid to the typological similarity and difference of East European specimens from similar finds from Central and East Asia. The paper proposes a variant for the reconstruction of the technology of mould manufacturing and casting of the product. The authors provide the results of X-ray fluorescence analysis of the metal in the published helmet and compare them with data on other known finds of Kuban type helmets. The comparison shows the difference in the composition of metal which they were made from.

Environmental and Cultural Transformations at the Turn of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age in the Steppe Belt of Eurasia

At the turn of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age in the steppe belt of Eurasia there were significant cultural transformations which probably had been connected with Rapid Climatic Cycles (RCC) in this time, around 3,2 ka calBP. The correlation of data obtained on the base of radiocarbon dating, paleoclimatic reconstructions and cultural and historical chronology for eastern and western zones of the Great Steppe allowed us to reconstruct these processes. In the Late Bronze period bearers of the Кarasuk culture spread in the steppe zone of the Southern Siberia from Central Kazakhstan to Mongolia and Northern Chine. Formation of the Late Bronze Age cultures Sabatinovka and Belozerka Active cultures took place during period of favorable environment. Then the bearers of the early Hallstattian Carpathian-Danubian cultures and the Cimmerian nomads appeared in the beginning of the Early Iron Age during the aridization episode. Since the middle of 9th century BC expansion of the nomadic Scythian cultures within the whole steppe belt began because of wet climatic conditions.

Investigation of the burial mounds of early nomads of the Irtysh river region of Semey

The article introduces materials of monuments studied in the Semeytau and Kokentau mountain ranges. During the period 2014–2018, the research team has unearthed 13 burial mounds, distributed across six burial grounds and groups of burial mounds. The accompanying artifacts comprise iron rods (pins?) and the tail vertebrae of a ram. In three cases (Karatobe burial ground, mounds no. 2 and 3; Karasu-Ushtobe burial ground, mound 1), necklaces crafted from semiprecious stones have been discovered. Armament items are represented by a set of bone and one bronze arrowheads. In general, the ground and inside burial mounds find analogies in the materials of the Kulazhorga type (3rd century BC – 1st century AD) within the Upper Irtysh region, as well as in burial mounds from the early stage (3rd–2nd centuries BC) of the Wusun archaeological culture in the Ile River valley. It is worth noting the proximity of the design features of the burial structures and the subject complex of most of the described mounds with the monuments of Saryarka, first of all, the greatest parallels can be traced among the materials of the monuments of the Karamola type. According to the results of radiocarbon analysis, the objects studied date back to the 5th–3rd centuries BC.

The population of the middle course of the Ural River in the Early Iron Age (by the data from the Industrialnaya Zona cemetery)

Presented in the publication are the craniological data on a series of early nomads of the Sarmatian type from the Industrialnaya Zona (Poyma) cemetery in the territory of Terekti District of Western Kazakhstan Oblast. Age and sex determinations were given for 61 burials of the Early Iron Age and five of the Bronze Age. The cra-niological series is represented by 32 crania, of which 20 are male and 12 are female. They are characterized by similar morphological features characteristic of the population of the Ural River Basin. As of today, this series is one of the largest, and it dates to a rather narrow chronological period of the 4th–3rd cс. BC. The ‘Sauromato-Sarmatian’ population across the whole territory of its settlement demonstrates biological unity, which is also con-firmed by the palaeogenetic data. It is likely that the Volga-Ural and Cisaral regions constituted the hearth of the racial genesis, which is associated with the origin of the early nomads of the arid zones from the Urals to Ancient Khwarazm and from the Turgay to the Lower Don regions and the formation of the specific craniological complex, with large latitudinal characteristics of the cranium and facial region. The angles of the horizontal profiling feature significant flattening at the upper level, while at the lower level it is at the borderline between the Caucasoid and Mongoloid types with the nasal bones protruding prominently in profile. Also presented in the publication is the graphic reconstruction of the face from the cranium from burial No. 3, mound No. 10. The features presented in the physical appearance of the reconstruction reflect what the ancient nomads of the Ural River Basin looked like. The comparison of the craniological characteristics of the Industrialnaya Zone cemetery against a broad back-ground of the comparative materials, generalised from the cultures of the Early Iron Age, showed that the cranio-logical features of the group do not differ from the surrounding population with similar cultural characteristics of the Volga-Ural region, Western Kazakhstan, and the Lower Don region at the end of the 6th — 3rd c. BC.

Research methodology of the zolnik (ash hill) at the Scythian cultural circle hillfort in Chotyniec

Abstract The article presents the methodology of archaeological research on the hillfort in Chotyniec in south-eastern Poland. In addition to other elements, the research project included the discovery and examination of an object known as a zolnik. A zolnik is a unique object which functioned as a cult place where rituals took the form of communal feasts. Similar objects can be found among those located in the forest-steppe zone of Eastern Europe, which in the early Iron Age was influenced by the Scythian culture. The research methodology presented in the article deviates significantly from that used so far in relation to the investigation of zolniks. This is due to the focus on identifying the most complete spatial and functional context possible, as well as creating a permanent excavation documentation for further analysis and verification. Particular emphasis was placed on the accuracy and meticulousness of documenting the discoveries, which would not have been possible without the application and implementation of spatial information systems. Due to its innovative nature, the article is also intended to start a discussion about the way in which the proposed change in the methods of zolnik examination translates into greater interpretation possibilities. This applies to both functional and chronological issues, which in turn leads to a fuller knowledge and reconstruction of these objects.

Vanished civilisation hidden treasure theories analysis

The research relevance is determined by the substantial potential of the scientific search for information and sources on the life of the Scythians. Since the 18th century, researchers have thoroughly begun to approach the excavation of Scythian mounds in search of legendary treasures. Periodic finds with significant accompanying material memos provide more and more reasons to assert that the Scythian Herrhos, about which Herodotus wrote, really existed, but its location is still a mystery. This study presents the main versions and theories about the hidden treasures of the vanished Scythian civilization. The study involves the analysis of key hypotheses about the location of Scythian treasures and their correlation with objectively possible historical circumstances of their existence and location. The leading approach in the study is the analytical method, alongside synthesis, analogy, induction, deduction, comparative, systemic, and reductionism. As a result, the most common theories about the existence of Scythian treasures were presented, along with arguments confirming or refuting these positions using written evidence and archaeological materials. The study focuses on such an important aspect of Scythian culture as archaeological excavations and their legitimacy. The growing black archaeology issue is most presented in the case of the Scythian mounds, which greatly complicates scientific activity and casts doubt on the authenticity of the materials discovered as a result of excavations of already robbed burials. The materials of the study are of particular value to anyone interested in Scythian culture, including the sphere of scientific interests of historians, archaeologists, geologists, writers, etc. The investigation of the Scythians and their life remains a promising scientific area, which provides for further archaeological excavations, the examination of material and written sources, the analysis of information of various kinds considering cross-cultural studies, based on the area of distribution of finds of the Scythian period

Looking at the Evidence of Local Jewelry Production in Scythia

This article considers finds from the Scythian monuments of the North Black Sea area that can be connected to local jewelry production from the 7th century to the end of the 4th century BCE. I wish to draw attention to the problem of prolonged bias in this area of study. The prominence of the famous masterpieces by West Asian artisans (Lyta Mohyla and Kelermes Kurgans) and of the Greco-Scythian goldwork from the North Pontic kurgans (Chortomlyk, Solokha, Tovsta Mohyla, etc.) invited the view that the vast majority of the gold objects that the Scythians used during their lifetime and later took into their graves were imported rather than locally produced. Instead of trying to consider all artifacts that could potentially be Scythian-made, my goal in this article is to review the direct archaeological evidence of local jewelry production in the form of punches, matrices, and recorded cases of workshops at Scythian settlements. Gathering this evidence, as I will argue, gives us compelling insight into the high level of Scythian goldsmithing from the beginning of Scythian culture in the 7th century BCE and its improvement and adaptation of new techniques in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, probably in the context of intensified cultural exchanges between Scythians and Greeks.

«Оленные» камни как источник при создании графических реконструкций

Due to the large number of depicted realities, including those related to the weapons and equipment of the warrior, the “deer” stones represent an important source for the military affairs of the early nomads of Central Asia. This is due to the high realism of the depicted objects and the fact that each sculpture shows an individual set of weapons. Despite the high informative value and expressiveness of these artefacts, they are rarely used to create graphic reconstructions of warriors of that time. In this paper, we will demonstrate the possibilities of this direction using the example of materials from Altai and Mongolia. Two objects are involved as sources. This is a well-known Chui “deer” stone and an object from the Bayan-Bulag-I complex. The article gradually examines the process of interpretation and reconstruction of realities and provides the basic methodological principles of such work.

«Олень — золотые рога»: анализ сюжета седельного покрытия из элитного погребения в Казахском Алтае

The article briefly discusses the conservation and restoration of the saddle from the Berel burial mound no. 11; the methods of studying the condition of the saddle, preparing it for exhibition, and the results of the work are listed. The authors also attempt to provide an archaeological interpretation of the artifact, i. e. the decoration of the saddle. Similar mythological content and artistic ways of its expression are revealed for the population of the Altai Mountains and Zhetysu in the era of the early nomads. In particular, this can be traced in the structure and design of the cult attributes of Zhetysu and the decoration of horse harness, saddles of the population of the Altai Mountains in the Early Iron Age.

«Девиантные» захоронения ранних кочевников Южного Урала (вторая половина VI – IV в. до н.э.)

Burials that are different in a number of ways from the traditional funeral rite for any society under consideration are typically referred to as “deviant”, “non-standard”, “extraordinary” or “atypical”. The article discusses ‘deviant’ burials of the Early nomads in the Southern Urals during the second half of the 6th and 4th centuries BC. This paper has two purposes: the first is to study these burials by analyzing their context and the second goal is to identify and interpret the reasons of their construction. The features of the “non-standard” funeral rite of the nomads have been distinguished by contextual analysis. The main result of the study is the identification of the main types of “deviant” burials found in the burial sites of the Early nomads, the appearance of which could have been influenced by many reasons related both to the system of beliefs and worldviews of the society under consideration, as well as by personal circumstances of life or death. Possible reasons for building “deviant” burials could have been the following: special social status of the buried individual, fear of the dead in the community, various rituals associated with human sacrifices or burials of “strangers’. It is also possible that the “deviant” burials could be associated with some external factors that led to refusal of the community to bury the dead using traditional practices and normative rites., it is necessary use a number of additional sources for further comprehensive study in order to identify the reasons for designing the “deviant” burials.