Scottish Prisoners Research Articles

An Insight into Gabapentin and Pregabalin in Scottish Prisoners.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and abuse potential of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) among prison populations in Scotland, UK. Participants consisted of all admitted and released prisoners over a 1month period who consented to provide samples. Urine samples were collected and analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry using a method validated for the simultaneous quantification of 21 AEDs in urine. A total of 904 samples were collected. The samples were also screened for drugs of abuse by using point-of-care testing kits. A total of 18% of the samples were positive for AEDs. Gabapentin (GBP) was identified in 118 samples (13%) and pregabalin (PRG) in 32 samples (3.5%). Interestingly, 12 samples contained both drugs (1.3%). The concentrations ranged from 0.5 to 1,100mg/L (median, 15mg/L) for GBP and from 0.5 to 440mg/L (median, 7.3mg/L) for PRG. Four samples were found to have concentrations >400mg/L, two samples for GBP and two samples for PRG. These concentrations are at least 20 times above the median concentrations. Other AEDs detected were levetiracetam (four samples), vigabatrin (four samples), lamotrigine (three samples), valproic acid (three samples), carbamazepine (two samples) and topiramate (one sample). Illicit or non-prescribed drugs were detected in 81% of urine samples of which 80% were from admitted prisoners and 20% from released prisoners. Benzodiazepines, opiates and cannabis were the most frequently detected drugs. Other drugs found in positive AED samples were methadone (26%), cocaine (18%), buprenorphine (17%), amphetamines (4%), methamphetamines (4%) and barbiturates (4%). This study shows a high prevalence of AEDs within the Scottish prison system, primarily due to GBP and PRG; however, due to the anonymity of the sample collection, it is unknown if these are prescribed or illicit drug ingestions.

The Legality of Prisoner of War Labour In England, 1648–1655*

Abstract Prisoners of war formed a legally distinct category amongst the many thousands of people forcibly employed in England and the English American colonies in the mid-seventeenth century, but they have yet to be studied as such. Focusing on 1648 to 1655, this article explains how a succession of English governments sent their war captives into servitude with private masters despite the prohibition of hard labour for Christian prisoners in the customary laws of war. They instead operated under the logic of the English poor law, in which the indigent could meaningfully consent to serve a master even while under duress. The case of Scottish and Dutch prisoners of war in the Bedford Level fen drainage project shows how the Council of State and the drainage company board members conceptualized common prisoners as willing workmen. Prisoners, ambassadors, and a variety of English observers instead thought that war captives should not have to work for their subsistence or their captors' profit. Nevertheless, common prisoners continued to labour under the aegis of free contracts into the eighteenth century.

Predictors of opinions on prison smoking bans: Analyses of survey data from Scottish staff and prisoners.

INTRODUCTIONPolicy-makers and practitioners need to understand characteristics associated with support for smoking restrictions to identify both potential allies and groups requiring particular support/targeted communication in the face of restrictions. Using data from prison staff and prisoners, we explored the structure and correlates of opinions relating to prison smoking bans.METHODSQuestionnaires were completed by staff (online, N=1271; 27% return) and prisoners (paper-based, N=2512; 34%) in all 15 Scottish prisons in 2016–17. At that time, prisoners could smoke in their own cells and during outdoor recreation; staff smoking was prohibited anywhere on prison grounds. Staff and prisoner questionnaires included identical/very similar questions about opinions on smoking in prisons and prison smoking bans, own smoking behaviour, health and sociodemographic details. We also measured in every prison fine particulate matter (PM2.5) as a proxy for secondhand smoke (SHS) levels.RESULTSPrincipal components analysis identified two factors: ‘Positive about bans’ (higher scores among staff) and ‘Bans will be difficult’ (higher scores among prisoners). In multivariable analyses, ‘Positive about bans’ was associated with: not smoking (both staff and prisoners), better general health, more respiratory symptoms and working in an operational role among staff; and no asthma, more sensory symptoms, higher educational level and status/release date among prisoners. ‘Bans will be difficult’ was associated with: fewer sensory symptoms and lower prison SHS levels among staff and being a smoker among prisoners. In smoker-only analyses, heavier smokers were less positive about bans and more likely to believe bans will be difficult.CONCLUSIONSResults suggest it is possible to be positive about prison smoking bans whilst also recognising and/or concerned about potential operational difficulties, and that these opinions are associated with several characteristics additional to smoker status. Support for future prison bans may be stronger if staff have access to objective SHS exposure measures.

The Risk of Making False Confessions: The Role of Developmental Disorders, Conduct Disorder, Psychiatric Symptoms, and Compliance

Objective: To investigate salient predictors of self-reported false confessions. The conditions included mild intellectual disability (ID), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), ADHD, conduct disorder (CD), psychiatric symptoms, and compliance. Method: The sample consisted of 386 male Scottish prisoners, who completed a diagnostic ADHD interview, psychometric tests, and a questionnaire about false confessions they had given to police over their lifetime. Results: There was a high rate of reported false confessions (33.4%); the reason for the majority (62.2%) being to “cover up for somebody else.” CD, ADHD, psychological distress and psychiatric symptoms, and compliance were all significant predictors of false confession. When examining the influence of underlying domains of ADHD, it was found that hyperactivity/impulsivity drove the association with false confession after adjusting for coexisting CD. Conclusion: CD and ADHD were the two most powerful predictors of false confessions, with CD mediating some of the effects of ADHD.

Exploring hate crime amongst a cohort of Scottish prisoners: an exploratory study

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the motives a person adopts in order to engage in hate-related behaviours within a prison setting. A subsidiary aim of the study was to compare this cohort of prisoners with prisoners who have been convicted for aggravated racism in the community.Design/methodology/approachIn order to gather data, an exploratory research design was adopted, utilising the method of semi-structured interviews. In total, a number of nine interviews were conducted. Qualitative analysis was then employed allowing for an examination of meaning in relation to the motives behind the commission of hate crimes to occur.FindingsThe findings revealed the presence of racist beliefs and attitudes in both groups involved in the study. Further similarities between the two groups included the perception of inequality and beliefs about racism. The differences between the two groups included poor emotional regulation and an inability to manage beliefs and subsequent behaviours about people from different ethnic groups, with those in custody seeming to be more reactive.Practical implicationsThe findings provide a preliminary insight into enhancing inmate safety. The environmental implications begin to reveal the complexity of hate-related behaviours in custody. There are differences between the context of hate crime committed in a prison environment compared to that committed in the community that require different solutions for addressing such behaviour. Further implications are considered in the final section of the paper.Originality/valueA large body of research has been conducted on prison violence, seldom does this research examine this issue within the context of hate crime. This preliminary study offers an insight into prison-based hate crime.

The use and readability of mental health self-help in Scottish prisons

Prisoners are at higher risk of mental health problems than people in the general community. One possible way of optimising mental health care resources in prisons is to offer self-help materials. In order for these to be effective, they must be appropriate for the reading ability of the patient. This study aimed to determine, by way of a survey distributed to Scottish mental health care teams, how self-help resources are being used currently in the Scottish prison system, and to analyse the materials using four different readability tools: FRE, FKGL, SMOG and the Drivel Defence programme. It was found that there is currently widespread provision of self-help to Scottish prisoners; however, only 53% of these materials are suitable for the quoted average prisoner reading age. Mental health practitioners should be aware of this when providing self-help to patients, and consider easy-read options where available.

Hook for change or shaky peg? Imprisonment, narratives and desistance

Given the twin challenges of the fiscal costs of high levels of imprisonment and of high reconviction rates post-release, the question of whether imprisonment can (and does) contribute to processes of desistance is a crucial one. This article discusses the repeated, and controversial, research finding that some prisoners see themselves as transformed by imprisonment. It argues, with reference to the narratives of Scottish prisoners, that this is not owing to intentional rehabilitative input, but driven by the need to craft a positive future. The article explores under what circumstances a transformation narrative is most likely to emerge and whether such narratives have the power to make desistance more likely.

Durham House and the Chapels Royal: their liturgical impact on the Church of Scotland

AbstractEver since the laying of the foundation stone of the present Norman building, Durham Cathedral has had an ambiguous relationship with Scotland – some good (the huge contribution of Dean William Whittingham through liturgy, metrical psalms and the Geneva Bible) and some extremely negative (the cathedral served as the prison for the Scottish prisoners after the battle of Dunbar). Amongst the more negative are the liturgical ideals and practices of the Durham House group, more commonly though inaccurately known as ‘Laudians’. The members of the group, which did include William Laud, were the protégés of the bishop of Durham, Richard Neile, and they met in his house in London. He promoted many as prebendaries at Durham Cathedral, and there they developed their liturgical ideals and practices. These ideals were ones which Neile shared with his contemporaries and close friends, Bishops Lancelot Andrewes and John Buckeridge. This article argues that the origin and precedent for these practices were the Chapels Royal with which most of the ‘players’ had affiliation in some way or other. Elizabeth I insisted on liturgical ceremonial and furnishings that supported or matched the grandeur of court ceremonial. It was a style which she hoped would also be adopted in English cathedrals. It was a style of worship which also appealed to James VI and through the Chapels Royal in Scotland he attempted to introduce a similar liturgical style. He also sought to conform the Church of Scotland to the Church of England, both in polity and liturgical text. The policy was continued by Charles I, who attempted to extend it to the Scottish cathedrals. Opponents of this court liturgical style and ‘Englishing’ of the liturgy found it convenient to blame the bishops who were given the task of implementing the liturgical changes rather than attack the source, namely the monarchy. The ultimate outcome was that, rather than the Church of Scotland adopting the 1637 Book of Common Prayer and Durham House ceremonial, it eventually even lost the liturgy which Scottish tradition had ascribed to John Knox, but the lion's share of which was more probably the work of Dean William Whittingham. Instead the Church of Scotland accepted the Directory of Public Worship, itself mainly the work of English divines. It became one of the few Reformed churches that did not have a set form for its public worship.

Low incidence of hepatitis C virus among prisoners in Scotland

To estimate hepatitis C virus (HCV) incidence and HCV risk among Scottish prisoners. National sero-behavioural survey; dried blood spots were collected in order to identify recent HCV infections (i.e. HCV antibody-negative and HCV polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-positive). All 14 closed prisons in Scotland. A total of 5187 prisoners responded to the survey (79% of available prisoners on survey days) comprising 5076 individuals (after removing incomplete returns and participants surveyed in more than one prison); 95% men, 32% (1625) reported an injecting history (PWID) and median sentence of 9.5 months. HCV antibody samples were available for 4904 participants; there was sufficient sera for HCV PCR for 2446 prisoners who had been in prison for at least 75 days. The estimate of in-prison recent infections is based on prisoners incarcerated for a sufficient period, i.e. at least 75 days, so that recent infections could be attributed to prison. Overall HCV prevalence was 19%; 53% among people who reported an injecting history and 3% among other prisoners. Three recent infections probably acquired in prison were detected. None of the cases reported injecting during their current sentence or any other potential exposure. Estimated incidence was 0.6-0.9% overall and 3.0-4.3% among PWID (assuming all infections acquired through injecting). Fifty-seven per cent (929) of PWID were receiving opiate substitution treatment (OST) at the time of the survey. Of all prisoners, 2.5% and 8% of PWID reported injecting during their current period of incarceration. The low incidence of HCV infections in Scottish prisons is due most probably to the low occurrence of in-prison injecting and high coverage of OST. Low HCV risk can be achieved in prisons without necessarily introducing needle exchange programmes, but close monitoring of risk behaviours is essential. If risk increases, provision of needle exchange should be considered.

Evaluation of a Screening Instrument for Autism Spectrum Disorders in Prisoners

There have been concerns that individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are over-represented but not recognised in prison populations. A screening tool for ASDs in prisons has therefore been developed.AimsWe aimed to evaluate this tool in Scottish prisoners by comparing scores with standard measures of autistic traits (Autism Quotient (AQ)), neurodevelopmental history (Asperger Syndrome (and High-Functioning Autism) Diagnostic Interview (ASDI)), and social cognition (Ekman 60 Faces test).MethodsPrison officers across all 12 publicly-run closed prisons in Scotland assessed convicted prisoners using the screening tool. This sample included male and female prisoners and both adult and young offenders. Prisoners with high scores, along with an equal number of age and sex-matched controls, were invited to take part in interviews. Prisoners' relatives were contacted to complete a neurodevelopmental assessment.Results2458 prisoners were screened using the tool, and 4% scored above the cut-off. 126 prisoners were further assessed using standardised measures. 7 of those 126 assessed scored 32 or above (cut-off) on the AQ. 44 interviews were completed with prisoners' relatives, no prisoner reached the cut-off score on the ASDI. Scores on the screening tool correlated significantly with AQ and ASDI scores, and not with the Ekman 60 Faces Test or IQ. Sensitivity was 28.6% and specificity 75.6%; AUC was 59.6%.ConclusionsAlthough this screening tool measures autistic traits in this population, sensitivity for scores of 32 or above on the AQ is poor. We consider that this limits its usefulness and do not recommend that the tool is routinely used to screen for ASDs in prisons.

Scottish prisoners to benefit from NHS health care

Scottish prisoners to benefit from NHS health care

Facial emotion recognition in Scottish prisoners

Background Studies of antisocial populations have found that they show deficits in recognition of facial affect. Such deficits are also found in other populations with clinical conditions such as autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive disorder. Aims We aimed to investigate the hypothesis that facial affect recognition in the Scottish prison population would differ from matched controls. In addition, we aimed to investigate any relationship between facial affect recognition deficits and offence history. Methods A sample of serving convicted prisoners, drawn from a larger study, was assessed for ability to recognise facial affect. Other variables were also measured and a self-report offending history obtained. Results 127 prisoners were assessed in 11 prisons. Male prisoners were significantly worse than age, sex and IQ-matched controls at recognising negative facial emotions, specifically anger, fear, sadness and disgust. Within the sample of prisoners, deficits in fear recognition were associated with a history of previous prison sentences but not previous convictions. With respect to offending history, sex offenders were relatively better at recognising sadness and worse at recognising surprise than the other offenders. These relationships remain after controlling for IQ. Conclusions Scottish convicted prisoners show deficits in recognising negative facial emotions in a pattern consistent with other antisocial populations. We also demonstrated a relationship between particular patterns of deficit and types of offending history not previously described.

What motivates dentists to work in prisons? A qualitative exploration

To explore what motivates dentists to work in prisons using Vroom's theoretical model of motivation as an explanatory framework. In-depth interviews were conducted with ten of the 15 dentists working in Scottish prisons. The focus was to explore their motivations to work in Scottish prisons. The data were analysed using a thematic framework based on the three motivational dimensions of expectancy, instrumentality and valence. The dentists had the skills to help improve their prisoner-patients' oral health but their efforts were often hindered by institutional rationing and the requirement to fit in with prison routines and procedures (expectancy). Despite these institutional difficulties the dentists experienced work rewards associated with the improvement in the prisoners' oral health (instrumentality). Finally, the dentists experienced a feeling of personal worth and a sense of commitment to providing care to Scottish prisoners (valence). The dentists' motivation to work in Scottish prisons may be explained by Vroom's Expectancy Theory. The dentists' motivation is characterised by their beliefs that their work will improve clinical outcomes which will be rewarded by the satisfaction experienced when they overcome environmental obstacles and provide oral health care for their prisoner-patients.

Summary of: What motivates dentists to work in prisons? A qualitative exploration

To explore what motivates dentists to work in prisons using Vroom's theoretical model of motivation as an explanatory framework. In-depth interviews were conducted with ten of the 15 dentists working in Scottish prisons. The focus was to explore their motivations to work in Scottish prisons. The data were analysed using a thematic framework based on the three motivational dimensions of expectancy, instrumentality and valence. The dentists had the skills to help improve their prisoner-patients' oral health but their efforts were often hindered by institutional rationing and the requirement to fit in with prison routines and procedures (expectancy). Despite these institutional difficulties the dentists experienced work rewards associated with the improvement in the prisoners' oral health (instrumentality). Finally, the dentists experienced a feeling of personal worth and a sense of commitment to providing care to Scottish prisoners (valence). The dentists' motivation to work in Scottish prisons may be explained by Vroom's Expectancy Theory. The dentists' motivation is characterised by their beliefs that their work will improve clinical outcomes which will be rewarded by the satisfaction experienced when they overcome environmental obstacles and provide oral health care for their prisoner-patients.

P2-101 Prisoner mortality in Scotland 1996–2007: retrospective cohort study

IntroductionMortality is substantially increased among those who have been imprisoned but there is little information about the extent to which excess mortality might be explained by deprivation. All cause mortality...

Measuring life-long patterns of instrumental aggression: a methodological note

Instrumental and reactive subtypes of aggression are likely to have different biopsychosocial roots. This has implications for research aimed at identifying aetiological mechanisms and for forensic practice. In this methodological note we describe the development of a unidimensional measure of lifetime persistent instrumental aggression based on information collected from a random sample of 241 Scottish male prisoners. We applied modern psychometric methods – confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory methods – to the development of a short, reliable and informative measure of this important forensic construct. Results indicated that information from files and interviews could be combined to develop a unidimensional measure of the degree of instrumentality, which provided a psychometrically robust measure of the construct of instrumental aggression. Further, item response theory analyses indicated good measurement across the middle to high range of the trait. Identifying life-long patterns of instrumental aggressive behaviour, and distinguishing instrumental aggression from the broad pool of aggressive behaviour, has the potential to improve understanding of underlying mechanisms, increase the accuracy of risk assessments, and contribute to more effective treatment and management strategies.

Predictors of offending among prisoners: the role of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance use

The aim of the study was to investigate predictors of offending among prisoners from official records after controlling for age at first conviction and antisocial personality disorder. The participants were 198 Scottish prisoners, who had completed Diagnostic Statistical Manual IV screens for child and adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory III for Axis I and Axis II disorders. The ADHD symptomatic group had significantly higher rates of total, acquisitive and violent offending than other prisoners, as well as greater regular heroin use. Hierarchical multiple regressions, using child and adult symptoms as dimensions, showed that frequent use of heroin in the year prior to imprisonment was the single most powerful predictor of the extent of total offending, with ADHD symptoms also adding independently to the variance in offending. In contrast, for violent offending, ADHD symptoms were the strongest predictor followed by alcohol dependence. The findings demonstrate the importance of heroin use and ADHD symptoms in the persistence of offending. There is an urgent need to treat drug addiction and ADHD symptoms in order to reduce offending among the most persistent offenders. Recently, treatment programmes have been developed for adults with ADHD, heroin and crack cocaine addiction which can be applied to this population.

The Structure of Violent Behavior

Common difficulties in measures of violent behavior are their multidimensional nature, the nonempirical ordering of violent acts, the inclusion of undiscriminating items, and differential precision of measurement across the range of seriousness. Data collected on a sample of 250 male Scottish prisoners, using the MacArthur Community Violence Screening Instrument, are examined using confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory (IRT) analysis. A hierarchical model with a coherent superordinate factor overarching two lower order factors—violence based on weapon use and violence without weapon use—provide the best fit to the data. The ordering of the items on the scale does not conform to the order indicated by IRT analysis. Items vary considerably in the amount of information they provide, with the precision of measurement of the total scale being poor at high levels of the scale. Ways of improving the measurement of violence are discussed.

The Fourth Yeare of King Henrie the Fourthe

All this time the king insisted, the Peircies resisted, and both persisted: hee in stiffe demaunding, they in stoute denying the Scottish prisoners which had beene taken at Hallidowne, and Nesbite. For of all the captive captaines in those twoe conflicts, only Mordake, Earle of Fife, the Duke of Albanies sonne, was delivered to the king, and hee (as it was protested) under tearmes rather of honor then of right. All the residue were retained by the Peircies as theire owne proper purchase and prey. These Peircies at the first were the greatest fur-therers of King Henries designmentes: for Henry Peircie, Earle of Northumberland and Lord Henry Peircie his sonne were the first whoe incouraged him to returne out of banishment, first who adjoyned unto him at his arrivall, and the principall countenance and strength to all his proceedings. Thomas Peircie, Earle of Worcester, was the occasion that the forces which King Richard brought out of Ireland, yea his houshold officers & servauntes, did breake & scatter from him. But they, being mightie and proude, were able to give him the kingdome, but could not bee content that hee should rule. In which case it often falleth that such great desertes are but [fo. 48] ill requited, not alwaies throughe the princes disposition, ether forgettfull or unthankefull, but for the most parte throughe theire owne presumption, who bearing themselves upon theire service become respectlesse of the prince, and arrogant among theire peeres, incurring thereby the indignation of the one and envie of the other.

The relationship between crime and opioid use.

Accepting that opioid use and crime are associated and develop together, amongst opioid-using criminals the need for opioids may cause crime on a day-to-day basis or both may tend to be determined by some other set of factors. Previous studies have either failed to allow for such other factors, or have failed to compare opioid users to adequate control groups. From interviews with 151 Scottish prisoners and non-prisoners, divided into five drug-using groups: (1) alcohol only; (2) cannabis and alcohol; (3) other drugs but not opioids; (4) moderate opioids; (5) heavy opioids, data were obtained on drug use frequency, crime frequency and a variety of other variables. It was found that: (1) there were no differences between incarcerated and non-incarcerated opioid users, in fact incarceration had no substantial effects on other variables; (2) heavy opioid users committed crimes significantly more frequently than did moderate opioid users, non-opioid polydrug users, cannabis users or alcohol users. But, moderate opioid users did not commit crimes significantly more frequently than did the other groups; (3) other drugs were related to crime. Polydrug use (including cannabis use) was more related to theft and delinquency than was opioid use. Alcohol use was related to fraud; (4) there were larger explanations of crime than opioid use--criminal experience and polydrug use--and crime was a better explanation of opioid use variance than opioid use was of crime. It is concluded that need for opioids did not simply cause crime. Rather, crime and opioid use tended to influence each other. However, this relationship was not special to opioids but, depending on historical circumstances, could--and to some extent does--apply to any drug. In consequence, society's treatment of drug-using criminals needs to deal with drug use and crime together.