Scottish Police Research Articles

How the police (over)use explicit apology language to manage aspects of their identity

Abstract Public and academic debate suggest a perception that institutions such as the police may be reluctant to apologise or ineffective when they do. This article takes the unusual step of considering the apology culture of the institution potentially offering apology as a crucial step in identifying possible barriers to change in institutional practice. I have analysed explicit apology language in letters written by Scottish police to individuals as a final stage in responding to their complaints about the police. Rather than police reluctance to apologise, I found the police potentially overusing apology language, in the sense that explicit apology language was consistently used where evidence both had and had not been found that the police were at fault. The grammatical construction of the explicit apology language differed between these two contexts. I conclude that police politeness culture includes an empirical norm to use explicit apology language in response to public complaints regardless of the outcome of that complaint, as part of their identity as a public service institution. Tension between this empirical norm and another aspect of police identity, as a law enforcement institution, is managed by a systematic grammatical distinction in apology language patterning with the complaint outcome.

How the police conceptualise and view the relevance of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) for policing: a qualitative investigation

PurposeKnowledge about the prevalence and impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) is pivotal to trauma-informed approaches, yet the impact of ACEs training is rarely investigated. This study reports a qualitative investigation of police perceptions of ACEs training in relation to conceptualisations of ACEs and trauma-informed working, practical applications of ACE knowledge and service-level support.Design/methodology/approachFour focus groups were conducted with 29 police officers, who had participated in an ACEs-awareness training. Based on the qualitative data, themes were generated using reflexive thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2019).FindingsAnalysis generated seven themes, conceptualised into three domains of conceptual understanding, police culture and operationalising ACEs.Research limitations/implicationsThe sample is limited to Scottish police officers and is ethnically non-diverse. Further evaluation of higher quality interventions is warranted.Practical implicationsThe study highlighted that a lack of conceptual framework, officer concerns and police culture may present barriers to officers incorporating ACEs knowledge into their day-to-day work. Future trainings should address these issues to achieve maximum benefits.Originality/valueTo the authors’ knowledge, this is the first in-depth qualitative study of police officers' perceptions of ACEs training. Focus groups facilitated the expression of cultural norms. The results provide insight into tailoring trauma-informed interventions in police in future, as well as raising broader service-level issues.

The impact of trauma-awareness session on police officers’ trauma-informed attitudes in Scotland

ABSTRACT Following reports that up to 80% of calls received by police in Scotland concern vulnerability issues, adoption of trauma-informed policing has taken priority. This is the first evaluation of the impact of a brief trauma-awareness training session on police officers’ trauma-informed attitudes. Participants from two Scottish police divisions – one who had been exposed to trauma-awareness training (n = 62) and one who had not (n = 91) – completed self-report questionnaires on their trauma-informed attitudes. Officers displayed more positive trauma-informed attitudes towards victims/witnesses than suspects/perpetrators (p < .001). Female officers (p = .002), those with longer service (p = .018) and marginally those who were older (p = .048) demonstrated more trauma-informed attitudes; officer rank was unrelated. Female officers who received the training had significantly higher trauma-informed attitudes towards both groups than male officers who received the training (p < .001), and higher trauma-informed attitudes towards suspects/perpetrators than both male and female officers who had not – though marginal (p = .048). Findings indicate that the Resilience trauma-awareness has limited potential to influence trauma-informed attitudes, which appear to be more dependent upon officer age, gender and experience. However, female officers may be more susceptible to awareness training than male officers. To meaningfully increase trauma-informed attitudes, a more intensive tool-based training programme may be required.

A Brief Note on the Doctrine of Police Operational Independence

A recent study in this journal of the doctrine of police operational independence has raised important questions around that concept ( Malik, 2022 ). New boundaries of tolerance and influence, it is said, need to be negotiated for the Scottish Police Authority to be able to play a more meaningful and independent oversight role in police governance. Yet, in that recent study an essential aspect of the law of Scotland was overlooked as an important component in assessing the doctrine of police operational independence.

Negotiating Boundaries of Tolerance: The Scottish Police Authority and the Doctrine of Operational Independence

In Scottish Affairs in 2001, Kenneth Scott and Roy Wilkie, while discussing the appointments of chief constables, noted that ‘the real power in Scottish policing is probably revealed where those elements in the tripartite system [chief constables, local government and central government] interact’ (2001: 57) irrespective of the constitutional and legislative boundaries. This paper examines the nascent police governance arrangements by shining a spotlight on the status of the operational independence doctrine in the post-reform era. It revisits the Scottish Police Authority’s attempts to negotiate its own boundaries of influence since its formation. The discussion draws on the 2012 reform legislation, official policy agenda that led to the creation of the Scottish Police Authority ( Malik, 2018 ), a select number of interviews with key architects of the Scottish police reform conducted between 2013–2016, official parliamentary reports, public meeting minutes, and HMICS and Audit Scotland inspection reports. The analysis suggests that the reform agenda did not seek to address the broad interpretation of operational independence that played a key part in diminishing the influence and performance of the local police boards. On the one hand, the Authority have attempted to challenge the scope of operational independence but with limited success. Conversely, and contradictorily, the influence of Ministers and the Scottish Government has gradually expanded. This raises important questions in relation to the essence of operational independence, when it is invoked and crucially who it is invoked against. New boundaries of tolerance and influence need to be negotiated for the Scottish Police Authority to be able to play a more meaningful and independent oversight role in police governance.

The Scottish police caution: do individuals with intellectual disabilities understand a verbally presented police caution, and can comprehension be improved?

This study considers comprehension of the Scottish police caution amongst people with an intellectual disability (n = 30). It applies techniques to the caution that are suggested to increase its ‘listenability’, to examine whether this could be a successful method of improving understanding. These techniques include providing instructions, further explanations and listing information. Half of the participants were assessed using the original version and half the modified version. Participants were assessed using an abbreviated IQ assessment, a measure of working memory and measure of state anxiety to consider potential predictors of performance. The modified version did not improve performance, with no participants judged to have adequate understanding in either version.

Distinguishing suicides of people reported missing from those not reported missing: retrospective Scottish cohort study.

Understanding what distinguishes the suicide of individuals reported missing (missing-suicides) from those of individuals not reported missing (other-suicides) may have preventative and/or operational utility and inform our knowledge of suicide.AimsTo assess whether specific epidemiological, sociodemographic or circumstantial characteristics differ between individuals reported missing and those not reported missing who take their own life. Content analysis of Scottish Police Death Reports, detailing 160 suicides/undetermined deaths over a 3-year period in the North-East of Scotland. Those in the missing-suicide group were more likely to be older but did not differ from the other-suicide group on any other epidemiological or sociodemographic characteristics. Individuals in the other-suicide group were more likely to be found inadvertently by people known to them. The missing-suicide group took longer to find and were more likely to be located in natural outdoor locations by police/searchers or members of the public. Individuals who die by suicide and who are reported as a missing person differ from those not reported as missing in terms of factors relating to location and how they are found but not epidemiological or sociodemographic characteristics.Declaration of interestNone.

Police Governance and Accountability in Scotland Following Reform: Revisiting the Policy Rationale for the Creation of the Scottish Police Authority

This article critically assesses the policy discourse for police reform in Scotland, specifically focusing on the rationale for the creation of the Scottish Police Authority (SPA). Through a chronological review of official policy reports and consultations that took place prior to the 2012 Act, and by drawing on a select number of interviews 1 conducted as part of the wider study (Malik, 2017a), I argue that while austerity became the catalyst for change, police reform in Scotland was strongly supported by concerns around weak police governance arrangements. The SPA was created to strengthen financial oversight, to provide enhanced focus on national policing requirements and to bring in professional governance competencies and expertise that the local police authorities lacked. In the five years since reform, the SPA has continued to struggle to address these weaknesses. Furthermore, the official reform agenda neglected the need for robust mechanisms for accountability of operational policing. This omission manifested in the most abrasive fashion following the 2012 Act as cases such as stop and search and armed policing highlighted the inadequacies of the new police governance arrangements. In order that the SPA can fulfil its intended purpose, it needs to enhance its capacity and focus on providing holistic mechanisms for police governance that incorporate financial oversight and robust accountability of operational policing.

Police Scotland: challenging the current democratic deficit in police governance and public accountability

This article considers the recent creation of Police Scotland and the substitution of local police forces for a national police service ‘Police Scotland’ in 2013. It assesses the drivers for change and the arguments presented by both politicians and police professionals in favour of the eradication of all 8 local Scottish forces and the creation of a single police force. It contrasts developments in Scotland with those in England and Wales where there has been a recommitment to local delivery of police services in which local police boundaries have been retained with the introduction of Police and Crime Commissioners. It considers the police boundaries and coterminosity with local authorities and highlights the absence of shared boundaries within Police Scotland. It reflects on the removal of local accountability in Scotland with the abolition of Police Boards and the creation of a national and unelected Scottish Police Authority. It highlights the significance of police planning led by senior officers from Strathclyde Police and the impact of this on Police Scotland. It raises legitimate questions as to the overall efficacy of a national force made answerable to a nationally appointed body, the Scottish Police Authority. Finally, it makes a number of recommendations which might go towards someway to re-establishing a degree of local accountability to communities and local governments in Scotland which is now so clearly absent.

Shaping the police workforce: a state-of-the-art literature review

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to review the evidence about the factors shaping the police workforce, commissioned by the Scottish Police Authority and Scottish Institute for Policing Research.Design/methodology/approachThe paper uses the theory of strategic fit to assess the available evidence relating to reshaping the police workforce and brings together the most relevant recent reviews of police organisations and empirical studies on these issues. The use of the theory enabled the strategies that have been adopted by police agencies in recent years to be evaluated in relation to the current political and economic environment.FindingsThe authors find that here is considerable uncertainty and while there has been previous discussion on the benefits of larger or smaller forces there is not robust evidence that a particular force size is optimal for either efficacy or efficiency, although very small forces may struggle in some ways. There is also mixed evidence about whether increasing police organisation resourcing to allow more officers to be employed reduces crime levels, and there is a relative lack of evidence about the impact this has on the other areas of community life in which police are involved.Research limitations/implicationsThere are major weaknesses in research relating to police organisational reform: there is no accepted theory of police reform, no accepted method as to how such a reform should be evaluated nor have there been any comparative studies of earlier police civilianisation programs (Braithwaite, Westbrook and Ledema, 2005).Originality/valuePrevious work on this topic often focuses on which organisational structure – whether in terms of workforce mix or size – is most efficient or effective. This research takes an alternative perspective and argues for a shift in the research agenda to take account of the friction involved in processes of organisational change, both in order to build a stronger research understanding of these important aspects of change and to more effectively inform policy. The paper provides a basis for the development of theories for understanding police reform in general – and workforce restructuring in particular – alongside appropriate methods for researching it.

Profiling in wildlife crime: Recovery of human DNA deposited outside

Incidents of bird of prey persecution receive a lot of media coverage in the UK, with investigations rarely recovering sufficient evidence to proceed to prosecution. One of the main challenges is to identify a suspect, as these offences are carried out in remote locations without witnesses, and crime scenes may not be found for days. However, traps, poisoned baits and bird of prey carcasses can be recovered from these crime scenes. This study aimed to determine whether reportable human DNA profiles could be recovered from any of these substrates after periods of time outside.Experiments depositing human touch DNA on duplicate substrates (traps, rabbit baits and corvid carcasses) set for 0, 1, 2, 4, 7 and 10 days outside were carried out, with DNA recovery and profiling following standard operating procedures for Scottish Police Authority Forensic Services. Weather conditions varied among experiments, including some heavy rainfall. Results demonstrated that it was possible to obtain reportable DNA profiles from all substrates after at least 1 day outside. Most promisingly, the traps showed no drop-off in DNA persistence over the experiments as complete DNA profiles were obtained after the full 10 days outside. A further experiment using 4 bird of prey carcasses confirmed that it is possible to obtain reportable human DNA profiles from them after 1 day outside (n = 2 reportable profiles). These results show that touch DNA can persist in an outdoor environment, and provide a tantalising avenue for inquiry in bird of prey persecution investigations.

Living in stressful neighbourhoods during pregnancy: an observational study of crime rates and birth outcomes.

Background: Patterns of adverse birth outcomes vary spatially and there is evidence that this may relate to features of the physical environment such as air pollution. However, other social characteristics of the environment such as levels of crime are relatively understudied. This study examines the association between crime rates and birth weight and prematurity. Methods: Maternity inpatient data recorded at birth, including residential postcode, was linked to a representative 5% sample of Scottish Census data and small area crime rates from Scottish Police forces. Coefficients associated with crime were reported from crude and confounder adjusted models predicting low birth weight (< 2500 g), mean birthweight, small for gestational age and prematurity for all singleton live births. Results: Total crime rates were associated with strong and significant reductions in mean birth weight and increases in the risks of both a small for gestational age baby and premature birth. These effects, with the exception of prematurity, were robust to adjustment for individual characteristics including smoking, ethnicity and other socio-economic variables as well as area based confounders including air pollution. Mean birth weight was robust to additional adjustment for neighbourhood income deprivation. Conclusion: The level of crime in a mother’s area of residence, which may be a proxy for the degree of threat felt and therefore stress experienced, appears to be an important determinant of the risk of adverse birth outcomes.

Police officer perceptions of harassment in England and Scotland

PurposeResearch has demonstrated that certain relational biases exist within perceptions of stalking. One such bias concerns the perception that ex‐partner stalkers are less dangerous than those who target strangers or acquaintances despite applied research suggesting the opposite.MethodIn all, 135 police officers in England (where stalking has been outlawed since 1997) and 127 police officers in Scotland (where stalking has been outlawed since 2010) responded to vignettes describing a stalking scenario in which the perpetrator and victim were portrayed as strangers, acquaintances, or ex‐partners.ResultsAlthough typical relational biases existed in both samples, Scottish police officers were less susceptible to these biases than English police officers. Victim responsibility mediated the relation between prior relationship and perceptions of stalking for the English, but not the Scottish, police officers.ConclusionsFuture work should examine whether these biases may be found in other areas of the criminal justice system, and how far they are influenced by policy, practice, and training.

Early warning signs of persistent complainants

Using a retrospective case control study of 60 complainants from a Scottish police force and from the Police Complaints Commissioner for Scotland (PCCS), we aimed to devise a set of early warning signs to allow for the identification of complainants likely to become unusually persistent, and to examine the use of complaint management strategies in these cases. There were significant differences between the unusually persistent complainants and the other groups. There were several key complaint handling strategies that were not used. Early warning signs could potentially identify a group of complainants ‘at risk’ of becoming unusually persistent. Appropriate complaint handling strategies could be implemented both early and later in the complaints process to increase the likelihood of a successful outcome for both complainants and public bodies and lead to significant cost savings across the public sector.

Hearing sectarianism: understanding Scottish sectarianism as song

This article is an attempt to understand how sectarian views in the public domain are constructed through the mediatisation of a highly contentious sectarian song. In 2011, a number of songs were banned by the Scottish Police Service and individuals arrested for performing them. Rarely have the objects of musical experience including songs, tunes, certain instruments or performance contexts been criminalised in the contemporary world, and particularly in late modern Western democratic states. But there has been a very recent, widespread and vigorous debate in Scotland over sectarianism and, in particular, over the performance of sectarian songs. With reference to a case study of The Famine Song, I will show how the song, its performance at football matches, and subsequent mediatisation within the national press have clustered and polarised sectarian difference. Using critical discourse analysis, I examine the lyrical content, context, performance and subsequent reception and mediatisation of the song in the press, to demonstrate how cultural performance can construct sectarian difference in the public imagination.

Police officer anxiety after occupational blood and body fluid exposure

In the course of their work, police staff are at risk of exposure to blood and body fluids (BBF) and potentially at risk of acquiring a blood-borne viral infection. To examine levels of anxiety among Scottish police staff following an occupational exposure to BBF. Police staff who reported an incident of exposure to their occupational health (OH) provider were invited to complete a postal questionnaire about their levels of self-reported anxiety after the incident and after contact with medical services (namely, OH and accident and emergency (A&E)). Seventy exposed individuals (66% of those invited to take part) completed a questionnaire. Participants' self-reported anxiety after the incident varied widely. Levels of anxiety reduced over time and following contact with medical services. A&E staff were more likely to be the first point of medical contact for the most anxious individuals. Pre-incident training was not associated with post-incident anxiety. The findings suggest that contact with medical services helps to alleviate post-exposure anxieties among police staff.

Anglicization and Autonomy: Scottish Policing, Governance and the State, 1833 to 1885

As with other pillars of the Scottish criminal justice system, the distinctiveness of the Scottish police model from its English counterpart has been widely acknowledged. Its historical development, institutional structure, and level of community support have been portrayed as unique in the United Kingdom. Although rarely heralded as a symbol of national identity in the same way as the Church of Scotland or the legal system, the Scottish police's distinctive customs, traits, and practices have been held up in some studies as a badge of national pride. Often this is for no significant reason other than the fact that police reform in Scotland predated similar developments in England. Municipal police administration has also been depicted as an important symbol of the self-governing nature of Scottish civil society, conferring upon local authorities a wide range of autonomous powers and strengthening their bargaining position with central government in Westminster in London.

Politics and the police in Scotland: The impact of devolution

The creation of a Scottish Parliament and Scottish government in 1999, under the process of devolution within the UK, created a significantly different constitutional and political landscape from that which preceded it. The impact on domestic issues in Scotland, such as policing, has been considerable. This is partly because of new structural arrangements, including the creation of a Justice Minister and a Justice Committee of the Parliament, and partly because of the significance of the law and order agenda within Scottish politics. This paper discusses the impact of these developments on the Scottish police. Analysis focuses on the growing involvement of the Scottish Parliament and Scottish governments in key areas such as constabulary independence, police accountability and the management of police resources. Through this discussion, the paper seeks to make a contribution to the debate about the relationship between the police and politics, and the extent to which policing in Scotland is becoming increasingly politicised.

Management of blood and body fluid exposures in police service staff

Police service staff are at risk of occupational exposure to blood and body fluids with the consequent risk of blood-borne virus (BBV) infection. To examine the types of occupational exposure incidents experienced by Scottish police service staff and to evaluate the post-incident management provided by their occupational health (OH) services. Data were collected on the circumstances and the post-incident management of each incident reported to OH over 12 months. An expert panel reviewed the post-incident management provided by OH. The panel considered that the majority of cases of occupational exposure incurred little or no risk of BBV transmission. In general, the expert panel assessed the post-incident management provided by OH units serving the police as adequate and appropriate. However, some concerns were raised in relation to a small number of incorrect risk assessments and an inconsistent approach to hepatitis C virus (HCV) follow-up blood testing. The study findings suggest that most Scottish police OH departments were providing adequate post-incident management. There is, however, a need for more clarity around BBV risk assessment terminology and development of a standardized HCV testing protocol.

Forensic Interviews with Children in Scotland: A Survey of Interview Practices Among Police

The present study surveyed 91 police interviewers in Scottish police forces about their perceptions of how well they adhered to the Scottish Executive (2003) guidelines. Almost all respondents (97%) received the appropriate national training and overwhelmingly indicated (again 97%) that their training equipped them either quite, very, or extremely well for conducting their interviews. Not surprisingly, therefore, most interviewers (88%) believed that their interviews allowed them to obtain full and complete accounts of the events being investigated. However, aside from this positive self evaluation there are reasons to be concerned about some aspects of the interviews being conducted; 1) Most interviewers (78%) received no refresher training, 2) no interviewers received formal feedback about the quality of interviews that they conducted, 3) practice interviews were reportedly not included in most interviews, 4) the use of open-ended prompts were not widely used with 20% of interviewers indicating that they were rarely used, and 5) interviews are not currently being electronically recorded. These results are discussed with respect to the context of child interviewing in Scotland and recommendations for future training.