Science In Britain Research Articles

The New (White) Normal: Human Anatomy and the Naturalisation of White Bodies in British University Teaching, 1860–1910

Summary The discipline of human anatomy has often been overlooked in histories of race science in favour of comparative anatomy, anthropology, ethnography and statistics. However, understanding the historical relationship between human anatomy and race science is particularly important because of the discipline’s central role, unlike its sister disciplines, in medical education. This article begins to redress this oversight, demonstrating that human anatomy played a key role in the development of nineteenth-century race science in Britain. This article considers three main elements of ideas about racial anatomical difference: the language of racial hierarchy, anatomists’ location of racial difference within the body and the perpetuation of these ideas over time. In so doing, I argue that research into racial difference was demonstrably anatomical during the late nineteenth century, playing a key role in British anatomists’ discipline-building processes, and that these ideas were present within the classroom, influencing generations of medical students.

Scientizing the 'environment': Solly Zuckerman and the idea of the School of Environmental Sciences.

In 1960 Sir Solly Zuckerman proposed the idea of an interdisciplinary department of 'environmental sciences' (ENV) for the newly established University of East Anglia (UEA). Prior to this point, the concept of 'environmental sciences' was little known: since then, departments and degree courses have rapidly proliferated through universities and colleges around the globe. This paper draws on archival research to explore the conditions and contexts that led to the proposal of a new and interdisciplinary grouping of sciences by Zuckerman. It argues that the activities of Zuckerman and other scientists in Britain during the Second World War and in the post-war period helped to create fertile conditions for a new kind of scientific authority to emerge as a tool of governance and source of policy advice. In particular, the specific challenges of post-war Britain - as addressed through scientific advisers and civil servants - led to the 'environment' becoming both the subject of sustained scientific study and an object of concern.

Beginnings of Wetland Science in Britain: Agnes Arber and William H. Pearsall

Agnes Arber (1879-1960) and William H. Pearsall (1891- 1964) were two of England’s most influential antecedent wetland scientists. Arber was a plant anatomist specializing in monocotyledons, whose only major contribution to wetland science was her 1920 book, Water Plants. It was the first compendium of information on wetland plants in English and summarized the literature on their life histories, anatomies, ecologies, and evolution. It remained the standard reference on wetland plants for decades after its publication. William Pearsall began studying the ecology of wetland plants in the lakes of the English Lake District as a young man. This early research (1913-1920), which he did with the help of his school-teacher father, identified the environmental factors (substrate type, siltation rates, maximum light penetration, wave action, etc.) that determined the distribution of wetland plants and changes in the lake basins over time. In the late 1930s, Pearsall pioneered measuring electrical potential (redox) in soils to characterize their chemical status (oxidizing or reducing). He documented that soil electrical potentials became more negative as soils flooded and increased in organic matter. Pearsall also played a major role in the establishment (1929) and initial research program (Honorary Director, 1931-1937) of the Freshwater Biological Association, Britain’s first research organization dedicated to studying aquatic systems.

Beginnings of Wetland Science in Britain: Agnes Arber and William H. Pearsall

Agnes Arber (1879-1960) and William H. Pearsall (1891- 1964) were two of England’s most influential antecedent wetland scientists. Arber was a plant anatomist specializing in monocotyledons, whose only major contribution to wetland science was her 1920 book, Water Plants. It was the first compendium of information on wetland plants in English and summarized the literature on their life histories, anatomies, ecologies, and evolution. It remained the standard reference on wetland plants for decades after its publication. William Pearsall began studying the ecology of wetland plants in the lakes of the English Lake District as a young man. This early research (1913-1920), which he did with the help of his school-teacher father, identified the environmental factors (substrate type, siltation rates, maximum light penetration, wave action, etc.) that determined the distribution of wetland plants and changes in the lake basins over time. In the late 1930s, Pearsall pioneered measuring electrical potential (redox) in soils to characterize their chemical status (oxidizing or reducing). He documented that soil electrical potentials became more negative as soils flooded and increased in organic matter. Pearsall also played a major role in the establishment (1929) and initial research program (Honorary Director, 1931-1937) of the Freshwater Biological Association, Britain’s first research organization dedicated to studying aquatic systems.

Eyewitnesses to the Phenomenon of Russian Cold: Robert Boyle and the Accounts of Early Travelers North

This article examines the Russian cold as reflected in accounts of early travelers to the north. For his study of the phenomenon of cold in the early 1660s, Robert Boyle repurposed parts of Giles Fletcher’s travel account of Russia written seventy-seven years earlier. Inspired by Sir Francis Bacon’s work on heat, Boyle sought to understand the extremes of cold but found himself hampered by its absence in northern England. Consequently, he turned, among other sources, to the printed account of Ambassador Fletcher who, sailing north on a Muscovy Company ship, had kept a journal following the Instructions and Ordinances drafted for that Company by Sebastian Cabot. Boyle found verification of the accuracy of Fletcher’s eyewitness description of cold through his friends and compatriots in the Royal Society who had been to Russia. Ultimately, this is the story of the impact of England’s mid-sixteenth century navigational technology and commercial and diplomatic relations with Russia on Robert Boyle’s late seventeenth century early scientific study of cold which, according to the author’s conclusion, demonstrates how the study of the Russian north impacted the early development of natural science in England.

Scientific ideologies on the move: Sino-British exchanges, scientific freedoms and the governance of science in Britain, 1961–1966

In the early 1960s, amidst a period of considerable debate surrounding how civil science in Britain should be governed, British scientists—especially those associated with the Royal Society—and their counterparts in the People's Republic of China (PRC) began tentative exchange programmes. Although such unusual interactions between Cold War adversaries were enabled by claims that science was a universal and apolitical phenomenon, the ways in which institutional and individual participants were embroiled in these domestic debates illuminate how their ideological outlooks shaped their views on exchange and on the science they encountered. By focusing on three interrelated exchanges during this period—an individual scientist's visit to the PRC, a Royal Society delegation to China, and a larger research programme bringing junior Chinese researchers to Britain—I argue that participating British scientists' conceptualizations of ‘scientific freedom’ framed how they judged science in China, and the value of these exchanges; their observations and actions during these interactions reflected their views on domestic British debates over the governance of science. This study thereby sheds light on how the ideological attitudes of participants of science diplomacy shape its practice.

Teaching statistics and data science in England's schools

AbstractIn 2003, Holmes [The Statistician 52, Part 4, (2003), 439–474] reviewed 50 years of teaching statistics in English schools and drew out many lessons for more effective teaching. We consider the current relevance of several of these lessons and whether we have learned from them. Many national reports have been published about teaching statistics with few of their recommendations being implemented. There have been rapid developments in the methodology of, and technology used by, statistics at all levels outside schools. These have led to the accelerated development of the use of statistics and related disciplines such as data science (DS). In schools, we have not seen as much progress in teaching, learning, assessing, or communicating these subjects. We consider reasons for lack of progress in pedagogy and make our own recommendations to get schools to catch up with the exciting developments in the practice and communication of statistics and DS.

The ‘janitor-geologist’ and the ‘cold materialistic scientific men’: James Croll's navigation of scientific societies

ABSTRACTScientific societies played a crucial role in the emergence of a professional culture of science in Britain in the mid- to late-19th Century. At first sight, James Croll's membership of a limited number of scientific associations may be assumed to be the result of his lack of social credit and scientific connections. In this article, by examining Croll's correspondence, I demonstrate that Croll's select participation in scientific clubs and associations reflected his strategic pursuit of a vision of science set apart from party or societal affiliation. I focus on the contrasting histories of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Geological Survey, as well as the institutional history of thePhilosophical Magazine. Situating the institutions in their respective social and cultural contexts, I argue that the more meritocratic, inclusive social structure of the Survey andMagazinehelps explain Croll's choice to avoid affiliation with the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Secondary data analysis of British population cohort studies: A practical guide for education researchers.

Britain is rich in longitudinal population cohort studies that posit valuable data resources for social science. However, education researchers currently underutilize these resources. The current paper (1) outlines the power and benefits of secondary data analyses for educational science and (2) provides a practical guide for education researchers on the characteristics, data, and accessibility of British population cohort studies. We identified eight British population cohort studies from the past 40years that collected scholastic performance data during primary and secondary schooling, including (1) Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents And Children (ALSPAC), (2) Twins Early Development Study (TEDS), (3) Effective Pre-School, Primary and Secondary Education Project (EPPSE), (4) Millennium Cohort Study (MCS), (5) Born in Bradford (BiB), (6) Next Steps (LYSPE1), (7) Understanding Society (US), and (8) Our Future (LYSPE2). Participants across these studies were born between 1989 and 2010, and followed up at least once and up to 68 times, over periods of 7 to 29years. For each study, we summarize here the context and aims, review the assessed variables, and describe the process for accessing the data. We hope this article will encourage and support education researchers to widely utilize existing population cohort studies to further advance education science in Britain and elsewhere.

Poe's “Eureka,” Erasmus Darwin, and Discourses of Radical Science in Britain and America, 1770–1850

Poe's “Eureka,” Erasmus Darwin, and Discourses of Radical Science in Britain and America, 1770–1850

Ladies with hammers – exploring a social paradox in early nineteenth-century Britain

Abstract In the early nineteenth century, long before the Geological Society of London opened its doors to female members, geology was a fashionable science in Britain. Numerous women collected fossils and minerals, and read or even wrote popular geology books. There was also a considerable number of female helpmates to renowned pioneers of geology, acting as secretaries, draughtswomen, curators and field geologists. Access to a full geological education via universities, public libraries or membership in scientific societies, however, was largely denied to these women, causing considerable frustration. Wherever possible, women interested in geology pressed for changes by enlisting sympathetic husbands to speak on their behalf, by forcing admission to the meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science or by supporting political women's rights movements. They were, however, not the direct pathfinders for the first female members of the Geological Society. Increasing professionalization of geology rendered the female amanuensis of previous decades obsolete and, when university education was opened to women in the late 1870s, the Geological Society saw females as unwelcome competitors. Anti-discrimination laws in the wake of World War I finally forced the conservatives at the Geological Society to admit female fellows.

Bringing up the Bodies: Governor Grey’s Bone Collecting

The contributions of Sir George Grey to disciplines as varied as botany, biology, ethnography and linguistics have contributed to his reputation as a humane, liberal-minded imperial functionary. In this context, it is relevant to bring up the contributions which Grey made to anthropology in the shape of the skulls, skeletons and mummified bodies of indigenous peoples that he sent back to scientists in Britain for analysis and display. This article considers what Grey did and why—as far as it is possible to ascertain—he did it. It also suggests that class as well as racial considerations informed Grey’s actions. Finally, the article assesses the significance of Grey’s bone collecting to the emerging science of anthropology.

But Who Is it for? The History of School Science in England

But Who Is it for? The History of School Science in England

“I Didn’t Know How That Could Come to This Curriculum”: Teacher’s Growth Through the Development of Materials About Nature of Science

ABSTRACT This article arises from a teaching experience at a state secondary school in London/UK that aimed at promoting a more culturally diverse teaching about Nature of Science (NOS) grounded on Global History of Science. Ideas from this field were employed to design four different teaching and learning plans (TLPs) that linked NOS and content from the National Curriculum for Science in England through historical narratives. The elaboration of these TLPs was carried out as a collaborative experience between the researcher and a participant science teacher throughout one school year, following design principles to inform different cycles of development, teaching—at one classroom (26 students aged 12–13)—and reflection about these materials. Using a qualitative approach to data generation (interviews and observational field-notes) and analysis, the main aim of this article is to explore how this researcher–teacher partnership has affected the participant teacher’s professional, personal, and social growth. Findings from this teacher’s engagement with the development, enactment, and reflection about these innovative teaching resources will be presented to illustrate how this type of experience can influence, for instance, teachers’ professional development, perceived self-efficacy around NOS teaching and ownership of novel teaching ideas.

Gender and Pain in Nineteenth-Century Cancer Care.

Gender and Pain in Nineteenth-Century Cancer Care.

Women in freshwater science: invisible histories?

Women scientists have historically been subject to direct and indirect discrimination. This opinion piece argues for a history of freshwater science that recognises the scientific achievements of women. It suggests that lack of opportunity for women scientists in the 20th century is typified by the stereotype that women were naturally predisposed to non-intellectual pursuits and, therefore, ill fitted to science. Freshwater science in Britain possibly provided a distinctive space for women in science, in spite of widespread lack of opportunity. Over 20 women scientists were working in one institution in the inter-war period, and during and immediately after the Second World War. Yet, outside of that specific context, their work is barely known. We give examples of these women and their work and argue that the historical invisibility of women in aquatic sciences needs to be more thoroughly addressed, so as to understand the work of women scientists as having historical, social, as well as scientific, significance.

Cultures of care? Animals and science in Britain.

It is becoming increasingly common to hear life scientists say that high quality life science research relies upon high quality laboratory animal care. However, the idea that animal care is a crucial part of scientific knowledge production is at odds with previous social science and historical scholarship regarding laboratory animals. How are we to understand this discrepancy? To begin to address this question, this paper seeks to disentangle the values of scientists in identifying animal care as important to the production of high quality scientific research. To do this, we conducted a survey of scientists working in the United Kingdom who use animals in their research. The survey found that being British is associated with thinking that animal care is a crucial part of conducting high quality science. To understand this finding, we draw upon the concept of ‘civic epistemologies’ (Jasanoff 2005; Prainsack 2006) and argue that ‘animals’ and ‘care’ in Britain may converge in taken‐for‐granted assumptions about what constitutes good scientific knowledge. These ideas travel through things like state regulations or the editorial policies of science journals, but do not necessarily carry the embodied civic epistemology of ‘animals’ and ‘science’ from which such modes of regulating laboratory animal welfare comes.

Get the picture?

Geologist and science writer Nina Morgan hears of a formidable force in palaeobotany Morgan, N. Distant Thunder: Get the picture? Geoscientist 29 (9), 26, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1144/geosci2019-052; Download the pdf here Passionate about palaeobotany, and a pioneer in the study of coal geology, Marie Stopes [1880-1958] is best known to the public at large as a sex symbol for her enthusiastic promotion of birth control and best-selling books such as Married Love, first published in 1918. Blessed with a formidable intellect, as well as a flamboyant and determined nature, she was nothing if not controversial. Left, Marie Stopes (taken in 1904) [Author unknown; Public domain] In 1902, at a time when few women attended universities, Stopes obtained a double honours degree in botany and geology from University College London (UCL)—after just two years of study. She went on to become the first woman to obtain a PhD in botany from the Botanical Institute in Munich, where university rules had to be altered to allow her to graduate. In 1904, she was appointed Demonstrator in Palaeobotany at Manchester University, overcoming opposition from some in the Senate who opposed the idea of a young woman teaching men. In 1905, she became the youngest Doctor of Science in Britain, and in 1907 she travelled to Japan to spend two years carrying out palaeobotanical research. Along the way she prepared museum catalogues, participated in international discussions, went down coal mines and carried out pioneering work on Carboniferous calcite-rich concretions known as coal-balls. Strong minded In 1910, Stopes was elected a fellow of UCL and, for the rest of her life, made regular appearances in the geology department. As a young Assistant Lecturer at UCL during the 1950s, Eric Robinson [born 1929] recalls how he was delegated to receive her when she visited the department because the then professor, Sydney Hollingworth [1899-1966], chose not to meet her.

‘Lovely people but utterly deluded’?

This paper argues that political scientists in Britain have, for the most part, failed to adequately understand Corbynism (i.e. the movement surrounding the leader of the Labour Party, Jeremy Corbyn) as a distinctive iteration of left politics. To substantiate this claim, we begin by mapping a consensus in British political science scholarship about the central features of Corbynism, namely that it is a misguided politics characterised by poor leadership, a ‘hard left’ ideological orientation, and a populist flavour. In the second part of the paper, we suggest that this unfavourable characterisation of Corbynism relies on problematic analytic assumptions about leadership, the left, and populism. Furthermore, we argue that such narratives do not withstand empirical scrutiny, largely because they fail to do justice to the heterogeneous strands that constitute the politics of Corbynism. In the final part of the paper, we offer an explanation for political scientists’ trouble with Corbyn, highlighting the continued dominance of the Westminster Model, widespread confusion surrounding the descriptive/normative relation, and considerable convergence between academic and media depictions of Corbynism. Overall, we suggest that political scientists’ failure to take seriously the full complexity of the Corbyn movement requires rectification.

The Age of Attraction: Age, Gender and the History of Modern Male Homosexuality.

In 1902, founder of the Berlin Institute for Sexual Science, Magnus Hirschfeld, developed a ‘psychobiological questionnaire’ to investigate human sexuality.1 The section labelled ‘sexual instinct’ [Geschlechtstrieb] asked: ‘What approximately are the highest and lowest limits in age of the people to whom you feel drawn, or is age of no importance to you?’2 Hirschfeld's interest in age as a driver of sexual attraction reflects broader sexual scientific attempts to map an erotics of age.3 This article explores how and why the relative age of sexual subjects was theorised by British and German sexual scientists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It demonstrates that questions around age preoccupied sexual science and argues, more specifically, that constructions of male homosexuality were driven by anxieties about interactions between children or adolescents and older men.4 In so doing, the article reveals the interrelationship between sexological debates about homosexuality and scientific explorations of childhood sexuality and adolescent development. It shows that age needs to be acknowledged as a crucial category shaping sexual scientific debate and structuring understandings of modern homosexuality.5 As is well known, the erotic charge provided by age difference was central to many culturally prominent eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century understandings of same‐sex desire.6 European and American elites interpreted classical (predominately Ancient Greek) cultures as providing affirmative models of youthful male beauty and intimate attachment between older and younger men or boys.7 While precise differences in age were rarely specified, partners were separated on the basis of maturity into active (the erastes) and passive roles (the eromenos). Moreover, attraction to younger same‐sex partners was not seen to exclude opposite‐sex relationships: men who desired male youths could also be married to women. The influence of this material on individual identities can be found, for example, in sexological case studies or letters received by prominent Hellenic writers.8 At the same time, this idealisation of age‐differentiated erotics reinforced existing associations between same‐sex activity and the sexual misuse of younger people by older men.9 In response, some sexual scientists sought to tease apart age‐structured and same‐sex relationships. These authors defined the male homosexual through his exclusive inborn attraction to other consenting adults. This article shows that this influential construction of the modern homosexual as a discrete congenital type emerged in direct response to considerations around age.10 It also demonstrates that, notwithstanding the emergence of this model, questions about the impact of sexual encounters with older men on a younger person's sexual development continued to be debated within sexual science, creating dialogue between theorisations of homosexuality and concurrent studies of childhood sexuality.11 As such, investigations of male homosexuality continued to revolve around urgent questions about how and when same‐sex desire emerged and what impact sexual experiences in youth had on later desires. These debates remained at the centre of early twentieth‐century sexual science in Britain and Germany, complicating the inborn model and securing the centrality of age as a key category in modern articulations of sexuality.