Science, Technology, Engineering And Mathematics Education Research Articles

Convergence and transdisciplinary teaching in quantitative biology.

The United States National Science and Technology Council has made a call for improving STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education at the convergence of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The National Science Foundation (NSF) views convergence as the merging of ideas, approaches, and technologies from widely diverse fields of knowledge to stimulate innovation and discovery. Teaching convergency requires moving to the transdisciplinary level of integration where there is deep integration of skills, disciplines, and knowledge to solve a challenging real-world problem. Here we present a summary on convergence and transdisciplinary teaching. We then provide examples of convergence and transdisciplinary teaching in plant biology, and conclude by discussing limitations to contemporary conceptions of convergency and transdisciplinary STEM.

Gender Differences in STEM Education : A Review Study

The low participation of females in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) subjects is a worldwide issue. There are so many problems being raised in the context of studying higher education for females. The purpose of this study is to explore the effecting factors in enrollment and success in STEM education for females. It is based on the review of literature on female enrollment and participation in STEM education. Due to several factors such as stereotypes and biases, societal and cultural misconceptions, lack of confidence and self-perception, and gender-based discrimination are the major causes to enhance the gender gap in STEM education. To create a more inclusive environment for females in STEM education the role of nation, society, and family is to be supportive. Women should fight against all kinds of discrimination based on their willpower. This study would help to empower women and also contribute to investigate the cause of gender inequality in STEM education and enhancing gender equality. This study can be important for states and organizations to make policies and plans to improve the education status of women in STEM education.

Comparative analysis between a STEM-based learning process and traditional teaching

The use of technology in education has modified teaching and learning processes. New concepts such as science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) are changing traditional learning. The purpose of STEM education is to prepare students for university engineering courses and higher technical education. The main aim of the study reported on here was to understand the influence of a STEM-based teaching process in different socio-educational dimensions. This was done by comparing the results achieved with a traditional expository teaching process with different groups of students. A quasi-experimental design was applied. A sample of 231 Spanish students from the first year of secondary education (ESO) was chosen. The results show that the STEM approach was significant in all the dimensions of study and, according to teachers, was more influential for student motivation and grades. The results also show that the STEM teaching approach was significant in all the dimensions of study. These dimensions are motivation; teacher-student, student-content and student-student interactions; autonomy; collaboration; depth of content; resolution of problems; class time, student ratings; and teacher ratings. According to teachers, the strongest influence was on the students’ motivation and qualifications.

Comparative Analysis of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Education Programs in United Kingdom, United States of America. Japan and Australia

STEM education is an important component for global development, many countries have invested a substantial amount of funds in the Program. Many initiatives, Programs, policies, law are formulated to increases the number of students’ enrolment and arose their interest to study STEM. In this paper, we present the comparative analysis of successful STEM education Programs in United States of America (USA), United Kingdom (UK), Japan and Australia. We explored different Programs, target groups, objectives and achievement of STEM in UK, USA, Japan and Australia. For USA, the study found that the STEM education Programs are successful but require the involvement of community elites. In UK, the STEM Education Programs are successful and it assisted the country in adding more curriculum materials and trained several personnel. In Australia, experienced a shortage of scientists and engineers and formulated policies and Programs of which some of these Programs were successful and boost the Australian STEM Education. In Japan STEM education Programs has succeeded in increasing the number of enrolment and interest in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. The stake holders, educators and government of UK, USA, Japan and Australia can use our study to easily identify areas that require improvement. As such, adapt their STEM education Programs in such a way that the STEM education Program can further be boosted. 

Meta-Analysis of the Influence of the STEM-Based Project Based Learning (PjBL) Model on Science Learning

In science learning, the STEM approach has been combined with project-based learning. This is an easy way to introduce the STEM approach to science learning. STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics)-based learning can train students in applying their knowledge to create designs as a form of solving environmental-related problems by utilizing technology. This study will analyze how much influence STEM education with the PjBL model has on student learning outcomes. This study uses a meta-analysis method by calculating the effect size. Research data was obtained from 50 national and international journals. That the results of the analysis of the influence of the STEM education integration PjBL meta model on learning outcomes based on class level found that the STEM education integration PjBL model gave the highest influence at the Junior High School level, namely with an effect size of 2.07, then Senior High School, namely with an effect size 1.42, and Elementary School with an effect size of 1.39. Meanwhile, the appearance of Higher Education is in the smallest height category, namely 0.86. This shows that the STEM education integration PjBL model is effective when used at all levels of education. Based on the subjects, it was found that mathematics was in the highest category with an effect value of 3.03, while chemistry was in the medium category with an effect size of 0.60. So it can be concluded that the effect size of the STEM education integrated PjBL model on learning outcomes in terms of subjects has a high effect.

STEM students’ career choice for teaching: studying career choice processes using personal projects

ABSTRACT Understanding how teaching interest and motivation develop during the academic STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) study program is essential to design effective interventions to increase teacher recruitment. This article describes a new approach to study STEM teachers’ career choice processes. The retrospective method, which is based on personal projects analysis, focuses on the career choice process of STEM teachers during the academic study program as well as on their current personal values and goals, and the interconnection between these two. Evaluation took place in a small-scale explorative study with recently graduated STEM teachers. The results illustrate that the methodology provides insight into STEM teachers’ career choice processes in a personally salient and ecologically valid way. The use of personal projects provides structure and focus, but also enables large-scale data collection. Therefore, this research methodology could be positioned to complement survey studies and narrative inquiry.

DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING A SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING ARTS AND MATHEMATICS PROGRAMME FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

Globally, the transition from Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) to Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics (STEAM) is being viewed as a change in education. A discussion on the issues linked to STEM and STEAM education, including the professional development of teachers and a model for a STEAM Programme, called Journeying into Steam focussing on Teacher Professional development and the school-based implementation is presented. A range of partners/organisations who worked with teachers in teacher projects/fieldtrips/teaching were engaged in designing and implementing the programme to primary school teachers. The programme has three phases: teacher fieldwork; school-based and student and community focused Service-Learning. Keywords: primary school teachers, science education, service learning, South Africa

Overcoming Policy and Practice Fragility and Enhancing Security of Science, Technology and Innovation Educational Achievement for Females in Uganda

The Sustainable Development Goals 2030 (SDG 4 and 5) provide for the attainment of quality education for all, including women. Africa Agenda 2063, Uganda Vision 2040, the Third National Development Plan (NDP III) similarly all provide unequivocal reiterations on the need for the provision of quality inclusive education that will drive national socio-economic transformation. This is particularly envisioned through a robust science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education that fosters relevant science, technology and innovation (STI) knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and competences to constitute the epicentre of the transformation. Promoting the achievement of women in equal measure to men in STEM and STI is critical to the socio-economic transformation agenda. However, there exist gaps in the policy framework and the implementation of STEM education that undermine STI educational achievement, especially for women. This conceptual paper is aimed at examining the fragility of legal and policy frameworks for STEM/STI education and the strategies for enhancing STI educational achievement for females in the Ugandan context. We argue that strengthening the policy implementation of gender-responsive STEM/STI education is a precursor of socio-economic transformation of nations and the entire world. The paper adopts a semi-systematic literature review methodology to examine legal and policy documents for strengths, flaws and implementation gaps with the aim of recommending strategies for enhancing STEM/STI educational achievement for females in Uganda.

EXPLORING EFFECT ON PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS' STEM ATTITUDE DETERMINED VIA STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING

As STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) education gets more and more attention from society, students' attitudes towards STEM are increasingly concerned. However, there was scant research that has empirically documented the relations among STEM attitude, learning motivation and metacognition. This research used Structural Equation Modeling to examine the above relations. Data were collected from 845 primary school students from grade 4 to 6, regarding their STEM attitude, learning motivation, metacognition, and their sociodemographic characteristics (family socioeconomic status). The results showed that metacognition played a mediating role in the effect of learning motivation on STEM attitude. The family socioeconomic status played a moderating role in the effect of metacognition on STEM attitude, and students with higher family socioeconomic status had a stronger effect on STEM attitude. This research also suggested that it is worth considering the improvement of students' learning motivation to facilitate STEM attitude through promoting their metacognitive skills, meanwhile balancing the gap between students under the difference of socioeconomic level in STEM education. Keywords: learning motivation, metacognition, STEM attitude, Structural Equation Modeling

AGILEST approach: Using machine learning agents to facilitate kinesthetic learning in STEM education through real-time touchless hand interaction

There is an increasing interest in creating interactive learning applications using innovative interaction technologies, especially in STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) subjects. Recent developments in machine learning have allowed for nearly perfect hand-tracking recognition, introducing a touchless modality for interaction within Augmented Reality (AR) environments. However, the research community has not explored the pedagogical approach of Kinesthetic Learning or “Learning by Doing”, hand tracking, and machine learning agents combined with Augmented Reality technology. Fundamentally, this exploration of touchless interaction technologies has taken on new importance in the new post-COVID world. Meanwhile, machine learning has gained attention for its ability to enhance personalized learning and play a vital new role as a virtual instructor. This paper proposes a novel approach called the AGILEST approach, which uses machine learning Agents to facilitate interactive kinesthetic learning in STEM education through touchless interaction. The first case study for this approach will be an AR learning application for chemistry. This application uses real-time touchless hand interaction for kinesthetic learning and uses a machine learning agent to act as both trainer and assessor of the user. The evaluation of this research has been conducted remotely through a usability study with expert reviewers, which includes 15 young researchers with peer-reviewed work in Human-Computer Interaction & AR and 2 subject experts STEM teachers at the secondary school level. The usability evaluation through NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX), Perceived Ease of Use (PUEU), and Perceived Usefulness (PU) with expert reviewers provide positive feedback about this approach for productive learning gain, engagement and interactiveness in learning STEM subjects.

A bibliometric analysis of the global landscape on STEM education (2004-2021): towards global distribution, subject integration, and research trends

Purpose This study aims to provide a comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis of the literature in the field of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education over the past 15 years, with a specific focus on global distribution and research trends. Design/methodology/approach This study collected 1,718 documents from the Web of Science (WOS) database and analyzed their timeline distribution, geographical distribution, research topics, subject areas, learning stages and citation burst using a bibliometric approach with VOSviewer and Citespace. Findings Results indicated that: overall, STEM education has increasingly gained scholarly attention and is developing diversely by emphasizing interdisciplinary, cross-domain and regional collaboration. In terms of global collaboration, a collaborative network with the USA in the center is gradually expanding to a global scope. In terms of research themes, four key topics can be outlined including educational equity, pedagogy, empirical effects and career development. Social, cultural and economic factors influence the way STEM education is implemented across different countries. The developed Western countries highlighted educational equity and disciplinary integration, while the developing countries tend to focus more on pedagogical practices. As for research trends, eastern countries are emphasizing humanistic leadership and cultural integration in STEM education; in terms of teachers’ professional development, teachers’ abilities of interdisciplinary integration, technology adoption and pedagogy application are of the greatest importance. With regards to pedagogy, the main focus is for developing students’ higher-order abilities. In terms of education equity, issues of gender and ethnicity were still the hottest topics, while the unbalanced development of STEM education across regions needs further research. Originality/value This study provides a global landscape of STEM education along the timeline, which illustrates the yearly progressive development of STEM education and indicates the future trends.

A Study of Determination of Benchmarks during the New Formation of Integrated STEM Leader Preparation Program

<b>Background: </b>Integrated STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education is crucial for teacher preparation programs that provide effective teaching in an interdisciplinary approach to teacher training. There is a need for a novel program to train pre-and in-service STEM teachers as STEM leaders who’s moving a passive STEM teacher into an active STEM leader in their schools. The professional development of new STEM leaders in schools is critical so that the benchmarks of a new school program called STEM-LPP can be met. This program is intended to help develop existing STEM teachers to become more experienced and innovative in their usage of interdisciplinary ideas and team-working. An iSTEM approach (Rosicka, 2016) is more than just the skills, competencies, and knowledge of the four (STEM) domains.<br /> <b>Methods: </b>A content analysis method was conducted by benchmarking the top five university master programs and academic committee meetings. The survey method was applied to design a new STEM preparation program for pre-and in-service teachers. This paper reports the benchmark collection and evaluation as a form of meta-analysis by academic meeting processes and views from existing STEM teachers from various schools how do the top five university master programs factor into your considerations? Data was collected by benchmarking and investigating STEM frameworks, models, and principles called benchmarks. Data were discussed and evaluated with academic meeting members, including two experts, two specialists in the department of curriculum development, three STEM teachers, three stakeholders, three staff professors, and two STEM master students from Suleyman Demirel University located in Almaty, Kazakhstan. Besides, 14 STEM teachers participated in evaluating in various schools. Findings: benchmarks and obtained courses were correlated to determine the relations.<br /> <b>Results:</b> The six benchmarks: educational leadership, engineering/project design and integration, technology integration, multiple discipline integration, research-oriented instruction, and practice/experience-based teaching, were determined. Under these benchmarks, courses, competencies, and learning outcomes were also generated. The developing process of STEM-LPP was also confirmed by analyzing the findings from top university master programs with academic meeting studies and STEM teachers’ evaluations. The correlations among the benchmarks and between benchmarks and courses were shown to have a strong correlation and their sufficiency for the criteria of LPP was displayed in the data.<br /> <b>Implications:</b> This type of teacher preparation program has two crucial purposes: at first, providing a way of determining benchmarks during the formation of the teacher preparation program for STEM education program designers and developers. Secondly, it was informative on integrating STEM disciplines with STEM student projects and activity work to develop teachers’ knowledge and skills. This study contributed to the construction of teacher preparation programs in universities and assisted STEM teachers in developing their teaching skills in the educational sphere. In future, such studies should be re-analyzed and evaluated by a large sample size of STEM teachers, partners, and other contributors.

Enriching Traditional Higher STEM Education with Online Teaching and Learning Practices: Students’ Perspective

In this paper, we aim to identify online teaching and learning practices that would be beneficial for blended and traditional on-campus education within STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) courses. Our university, as well as the majority of higher education institutions worldwide, has had few to no experience in delivering full online courses before 2020. The teaching process was, however, severely affected and modified by the COVID-19 pandemic, forcing an abrupt and unprepared shift towards online education. In this work, we look at the pandemic as causing a very favorable side effect that forced the university to study, test, apply, and evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of online education and assessment methods. The study is a result of joint efforts from different departments at the University of Aveiro, Portugal, connected to STEM undergraduate and graduate programs and is based on a questionnaire targeted towards students. In total, 167 valid STEM students’ answers have been collected and analyzed, both quantitatively and qualitatively. As the result, the best teaching and learning practices are identified and the main difficulties and obstacles experienced by students are detected. Some of the problems are common to many higher education institutions, such as the lack of teacher preparation in delivering quality online synchronous and asynchronous classes, technical limitations (network bandwidth/weak equipment), ineffective communication during synchronous classes, gaps in student skills, and low activity of some students and even teachers. We believe that the presented results would allow for improving future on-campus, distance, and blended learning courses, particularly through avoiding less effective teaching and assessment methods and favoring those techniques that students consider more efficient. This ultimately would lead to a more rewarding teaching/learning experience.

The Effects of Integrated STEM Education Practices on Problem Solving Skills, Scientific Creativity, and Critical Thinking Dispositions

Today, the need for individuals who follow scientific and technological developments closely and who can adapt to these changes rapidly is increasing. These needs have made it necessary for countries to try various changes, reforms and current approaches required by the age in their education systems. One of these approaches is STEM education, which has frequently been encountered in the national and international literature in recent years. STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education is an approach that emphasizes the 21st century skills, integrates science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines, and covers formal and informal education at all education levels. In addition, the number of studies on STEM education is increasing daily. This research aims to integrate the 8th-grade science curriculum with STEM education practices and examine the effects of these practices on students’ problem-solving (PS) skills, scientific creativity, and critical thinking dispositions. In this study conducted with quantitative methods, the pretest-posttest control group design of the quasi-experimental method was used. The study group of the research consists of students who took the 8th-grade science course at a private school. Research data were collected from both the classes before and after the experimental study. Descriptive statistics and covariance analysis (ANCOVA) were used in the data analysis. The research results revealed that integrated STEM education applications positively affect students’ problem-solving skills, scientific creativity, and critical thinking dispositions. The collected results were discussed with the studies in the literature, and suggestions were made accordingly.

Computational Thinking Development: Benefiting from Educational Robotics in STEM Teaching

<p style="text-align: justify;">The delivery of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) learning to improve an individual’s competence and future career interests has become a critical scientific undertaking for teachers and researchers alike. A plethora of research has proposed various hands-on robotics activities built on constructivist theories, thereby facilitating the development of knowledge based on reality for scientific and non-scientific stakeholders. Robotics may become an essential focus point within technology provision, which is an essential underlying characteristic for the seminal development of computational thinking (CT). However, despite the potential benefit of CT in developing an individual’s problem-solving skills, strategies for improving this ability through hands-on robotics activities largely remain underexplored. This paper highlights the constructs drawn from hands-on robotics activities in a STEM workshop designed for pre-service teacher students. The qualitative research design involved eight participants to investigate the responses of pre-service teachers to a hands-on robotics activity intended to provide STEM material. The research findings emphasise the correlations between the CT principles and STEM learning phases and underscore the roles played by educational robotics to enhance previous literature on learning experience.</p>

Fascinating or dull? Female students' attitudes towards STEM subjects and careers.

Internationally, the need to advance science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education is recognized as being vital for meeting social and economic challenges and developing a scientifically, mathematically, and technologically literate citizenry. In many countries, however, there are gender differences in the participation and achievement of girls and women in STEM education and STEM careers, usually to the disadvantage of females. This paper aims to identify challenges to female students’ participation in STEM both at post-primary (secondary school) level and beyond in the Irish context. The research questions we aim to address in this paper are: (1) what are student attitudes towards science, technology, engineering and mathematics as measured through interest and perceived ability in STEM, students’ valuing of STEM and students’ commitment to STEM? and (2) what gender differences occur regarding students’ attitudes to science, technology, engineering and mathematics? A survey was completed by 308 post-primary students in Ireland as part of a one-year research project titled “STEMChAT: Women as catalysts for change in STEM education.” Data analysis compiled descriptive statistics, including response frequencies and percentages and median and interquartile range values, and compared gender differences in survey responses using the Kruskal–Wallis H Test. Results indicated that female students had significantly more positive attitudes to science compared to males while in comparison, males had significantly more positive responses to mathematics compared to females. Challenges regarding access to and understanding of STEM in the context of post-primary education are discussed.

Is it transformation or reform? The lived experiences of African women doctoral students in STEM disciplines in South African universities

Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields have historically been disciplines dominated by white men. The colonial ideology designated Africans as subhuman, inferior intellectually, socially, and culturally to the white masculine norm in STEM disciplines. STEM education and careers were thus constructed to attract white, heterosexual, middle-to-upper class, Christian, able-bodied men. This positioning ensured that STEM environments remained inhospitable to anyone whose identity was outside the constructed somatic norm. The calls and imperatives to transform notwithstanding, the transformation process in STEM disciplines is moving at a snail-like pace. This article argues that what is occurring in STEM disciplines in South African universities is reform not transformation. It is underpinned by the intersectional theory within the qualitative paradigm. Seventy-three African doctoral and postdoctoral women students in STEM were interviewed from five South African universities. The findings highlighted how African women in STEM face challenges based on their racial and gendered identities and that what is presented as transformation is still oppressive to them. The study also found that equity through access to education in democratic South Africa does not equate to transformation. The argument presented is that despite existing policies and initiatives in South African universities to transform, the demographic inclusion of African, female staff and students does not necessarily equate to transforming the STEM environment. What needs to occur is a shift beyond reform and towards transformation through the use of strategic inventions which dismantle the racist, sexist, classist, and xenophobic ideology that permeates these environments.

Is there a gender difference in STEM students' perceived employability?

PurposeThe study sought to determine whether there are gender differences in self-perceived employability of students enrolled in Australian higher education science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) programs.Design/methodology/approachUsing an online measure comprised of Likert style and open text items, STEM students (n = 3,134) reported their perceived employability in relation to nine dimensions of employability identified from the literature as having relevance to careers in STEM. Analysis determined whether student confidence differed according to gender, field of study, study mode, age, and engagement with work.FindingsFemale students in STEM reported higher mean factor scores in relation to their self- and program-awareness, self-regulated learning, and academic self-efficacy. Male students were more confident in relation to digital literacy skills; these findings were consistent both overall and across several fields of study within STEM. Gender differences were observed across study mode, age, and engagement with work.Originality/valueThe analyses of students' perceived employability provide important insights into the formation of a STEM “identity” among female students. The study has implications for policy, higher education, the engagement of girls in early STEM education, and future research.

Current Challenges and Future Research Directions in Augmented Reality for Education

The progression and adoption of innovative learning methodologies signify that a respective part of society is open to new technologies and ideas and thus is advancing. The latest innovation in teaching is the use of Augmented Reality (AR). Applications using this technology have been deployed successfully in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education for delivering the practical and creative parts of teaching. Since AR technology already has a large volume of published studies about education that reports advantages, limitations, effectiveness, and challenges, classifying these projects will allow for a review of the success in the different educational settings and discover current challenges and future research areas. Due to COVID-19, the landscape of technology-enhanced learning has shifted more toward blended learning, personalized learning spaces and user-centered approach with safety measures. The main findings of this paper include a review of the current literature, investigating the challenges, identifying future research areas, and finally, reporting on the development of two case studies that can highlight the first steps needed to address these research areas. The result of this research ultimately details the research gap required to facilitate real-time touchless hand interaction, kinesthetic learning, and machine learning agents with a remote learning pedagogy.

Engineering better science education

Thanks to Stephen Pompea and Pedro Russo for their comprehensive overview of science education activities (Physics Today, September 2021, page 26). The authors mention in passing that the evaluation of innovative science education projects was included in their studies of educational transformation. It would be interesting to learn what was found in their evaluations and in others that may have been performed. NSF alone spends some $1 billion on STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education, so it is important to assess what effects those activities have had on science appreciation and competence.I constructed a small observatory in my town and operated it with NSF and NASA support for over 20 years. The opportunity to increase the awareness of astronomy in my community was enjoyable.11. P. Foukal, Eos Trans. AGU 95, 63 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1002/2014EO070004 But the experience raised some concerns about the current emphasis in science education. For one, I was surprised to find that while there are many astronomy projects on the Web focused on specific topics like building a model solar system or a rocket, the one resource that elementary or middle school teachers might most need—a comprehensive introduction to astronomy at that level—seems to have been overlooked. The only such general introduction that my colleagues and I were able to find at that time was an excellent textbook by Jay Pasachoff22. J. Pasachoff, Science Explorer: Astronomy, Prentice-Hall (2000). that wasn’t available anymore, although a revised edition has since appeared. An experienced teacher working with me commented that the currently popular emphasis of Web-based resources for teachers and students on relatively narrow topics makes it difficult to present a subject like astronomy cohesively.Another concern is the impact of too many curriculum changes on teachers. Our daughter teaches third grade, and one wonders how many enthusiasts of frequently revamping STEM curricula understand how much work goes into handling 25 rambunctious kids and their sometimes-difficult parents. Attrition of experienced teachers is a serious problem, and finding out that they need to master yet another way to teach math or science could be the last straw for some.It would be interesting to hear from the authors whether such concerns have been covered in past evaluations or how they might be addressed in the future.ReferencesSection:ChooseTop of pageReferences <<CITING ARTICLES1. P. Foukal, Eos Trans. AGU 95, 63 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1002/2014EO070004, Google ScholarCrossref2. J. Pasachoff, Science Explorer: Astronomy, Prentice-Hall (2000). Google Scholar© 2022 American Institute of Physics.