School Of Principle Research Articles

Reply to Dr. Yu Yihsoong

Reply to Dr. Yu Yihsoong Stephen C. Angle (bio) I am grateful to Dr. Yu Yihsoong for having engaged so deeply with my book Sagehood and its view of Coherence (or li 理), and to the editor for giving me this opportunity to reply. I am also pleased that Dr. Yu is not hung up on the translation of li as “Coherence”—indeed, he says he likes the translation—but rather argues with the details of what I say about li itself. As I read him, Dr. Yu’s critique of my book has three main aspects. First, he sees that I defend a virtue-ethical rather than a rule-ethical reading of Neo-Confucianism, and based on his sense of what virtue ethics is and requires, this leads Dr. Yu to conclude that I am forced into certain errors of interpretation. Second, Dr. Yu believes that while my views are problematic as interpretations of Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming, they resonate much more closely with the ideas of Wang Chuanshan, whom Dr. Yu himself endorses as a superior philosopher. Dr. Yu therefore regrets that I did not develop my account in closer conversation with Wang Chuanshan. Third, Dr. Yu argues that I downplay the ontological (for Zhu Xi) and immanent (for Wang Yangming) aspects of li. In this brief reply, I will focus primarily on the first and third of these points. Dr. Yu is surely correct that I would benefit from a more detailed engagement with Wang Chuanshan and that we should all pay careful attention to the recent work that has been done in this vein, most especially in JeeLoo Liu’s excellent Neo-Confucianism: Metaphysics, Mind, and Morality.1 Still, a dialogue with Wang Chuanshan that is both charitable and yet critical would require more space than I have room for here, and I believe that it is possible to clear up some potential confusions about my views without taking that further step at this time. In brief, then, I will argue that the particularist emphasis in my account of Neo-Confucian virtue ethics does not depend on a bifurcation of intellectual and moral virtues, and that once we have a clearer understanding of what I mean by “agent-based” virtue ethics, several other misunderstandings of my views on Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming can be resolved as well. Before turning to these two arguments, it might be useful to call attention to one of the major methodological differences between Dr. Yu’s approach and mine. He relies on the idea that Neo-Confucianism can be usefully divided into three distinct schools—the “School of Principle,” the “School of Mind,” and the school of “Qi-based Ontology”—and that the differences among these schools are sharp. A premise of my work, both in Sagehood [End Page 260] and in the book I have more recently co-authored with Justin Tiwald, is that the major Neo-Confucians do not divide neatly into such schools and that focusing on these divisions often obscures more than it reveals.2 We are better off attending to differences and similarities in piecemeal fashion and noticing different patterns of emphasis (Justin and I write of different areas of “focus”) as they emerge from our interpretive work. I will suggest some ways in which this approach—which, admittedly, runs against the mainstream of modern intellectual historical work on Neo-Confucianism—might make differences to the outcome of our interpretations as I proceed. Dr. Yu’s understanding of what I intend by “virtue ethics” has two key dimensions. On the one hand, he sees that I believe that the Neo-Confucians stress the “virtues of responding well to one’s circumstances” instead of what he calls the “the virtues of following moral doctrines.” While I am surprised that he finds it obvious that “traditional Confucian ethics” stresses the latter, Dr. Yu is correct that I do not think that Neo-Confucians endorse a rule-based (or moral-doctrine-based) understanding of ethics. In their different ways, neither Zhu Xi nor Wang Yangming believes that our ultimate guide is one or more state-able rules or “principles” that we can follow. It is true that Wang...

Scholars in Disguise: The Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucian Reappraisal of the Merchant Class in Late Ming

The phenomenon of the rise of merchants in late imperial China has been well examined in many studies, in which Confucian literati are shown to have made various adaptations to the new social reality. Wang Yangming’s (1472–1529) School of Mind-Heart in particular, incorporated this development into its philosophical worldview so that the Confucian sagehood was deemed to be within the reach of merchants. However, the opposing Cheng-Zhu School of Principle has hitherto escaped focused investigation. This paper seeks to fill the lacuna by studying the writings of a Cheng-Zhu partisan, Li Guangjin (1549–1623), whose generous reappraisal of the merchants extended to the female agents as well. His obsession with scholarly pedigree and his belief in the efficacy of the transformative power of Confucian culture indicated that he never perceived the merchants as true merchants, but as scholars in disguise. He was daring to criticize and rework the authoritative writings of Sima Qian on money-makers for his own evaluation of men and women in trade. But his patriarchal views and support of the state cult of chastity nonetheless underscored his identity as an orthodox Cheng-Zhu Confucian.

Song Neo-Confucian Conceptions of Morality and Moral Sources (Zhu Xi): Connections with Chan Buddhism

In this study of ancient Confucian, Neo-Confucian (School of Principle) and Chan Buddhist ways of thinking about morality and the moral agent, my main objective is to trace changes relating to the nature and foundation of Confucian moral thought that occurred during the Song dynasty, through a parallel reading of Neo- Confucian writings and the Platform Sutra. By using the hermeneutical method and comparative textual analysis, the essay provides evidence that these changes reflect the Chan influence on Neo- Confucianism and embody a specific Neo-Confucian spirituality. The following concepts and themes articulate the theoretical framework of the research: the moral agent and moral agency; the heart-mind, authentic nature, and the principle of coherence; types of morality (substantive and procedural); and interrelatedness, oneness and purity.

The philosophical thought of Dai Zhen and Chinese tradition

This article examines the philosophical ideas of Dai Zhen (1724–1777), a prominent classical scholar and thinker in the Confucian tradition. The writer argues (i) that what triggered Dai Zhen’s criticism of Neo-Confucianism, especially Zhu Xi’s School of Principle, was his perception that its ideas were used to oppress people; (ii) that he derived this perceived oppressive function from the philosophical error of taking li, principle, as a subjective entity, which people could define at will, rather than as an objective feature of reality; and (iii) that he considered this error as a deviation from the early Confucian thought of Confucius, Mencius and others caused by Buddhist and Daoist influence. Convinced that the Confucian Classics contained the fundamental truths about human beings and our place in the universe, the idea that these classics contained serious errors was unthinkable for Dai Zhen. In this sense he still operated within the confines of a totalitarian intellectual order. Yet, he was as concerned with the abuse of power in the name of Confucianism as with philological errors. While he would not have questioned the authority of the classics, it is striking how he insisted that their interpretation must be determined by intellectual criteria rather than dynastic power. In this respect Dai Zhen anticipated an essential feature of modern thought, and so it is not surprising that he caught the attention of seminal early modern thinkers such as Zhang Taiyan, Liang Qichao, Wang Guowei, Liu Shipei and, especially, Hu Shi.

Violence in Ming-Qing China : An Overview

Let us begin with a basic fact : the level of violence in late imperial China was probably as high as that in any historical society in the world. Obvious as this may sound, it is easy to miss it. The entire central message of the package of literati values that we refer to as ‘Confucianism’, and especially after its elaboration into the so-called ‘school of principle’ or ‘neo-Confucianism’ (lixue) after the eleventh century CE, was certainly more energetic than most elite cultures in esteemi...

The Wiseman and the Sage: Metaphysics as Wisdom in Aristotle and the Neo-Confucian School of Principle

Among scholars of classical philosophy in the West, it is not uncommon to hesitate about the existence of metaphysics in non-Western philosophical traditions. At times, the dilemma seems due to culture-specific ideas or standards about what metaphysics is or how it should be done. Other times the problem seems to lie in a general lack of awareness about the methods and approaches of divergent philosophical traditions. This article explores an often ignored Aristotelian notion of metaphysics: That it is wisdom. If we acknowledge wisdom to be a common value or ideal found in different cultures, then characterizing metaphysics as wisdom promises to be more inclusive than prevalent ideas about it, being broad enough to allow for the appreciation of metaphysical insights and achievements in non-Western schools. I first examine Aristotle’s account of what wisdom consists of. I shall then test the inclusivity of this conception of metaphysics by showing how its characteristic features are manifest in the Neo-Confucian ideal of sagely learning.

Between Virtues and Blessings: A Discussion on Zhang Jiucheng’s Thoughts

As an important thinker in the early South Song dynasty, Zhang Jiucheng differed in his thinking from the School of Principles of the Song and Ming dynasties, which was the mainstream at that time, and was thus excluded by Zhu Xi and his followers. The relation between virtues and blessings was a characteristic part of Zhang’s thought. By analyzing concepts like Heavenly mandates, virtues, blessings, luckiness and unluckiness in Zhang’s thought, this essay re-defines the complicated but manifest relations between virtues and blessings; clarifies the trajectory of Zhang’s thoughts on Heavenly mandates, virtues, and blessings; and displays the efforts of the Neo-Confucians of the Song dynasties to stress the value of human nature in the tension between Heavenly mandates and virtues.

Zhu Xi’s Choice, Historical Criticism and Influence—An Analysis of Zhu Xi’s Relationship with Confucianism and Buddhism

As a great synthesist for the School of Principles of the Northern and Southern Song dynasties, Zhu Xi’s influence over the School of Principles was demonstrated not only through his positive theoretical creation, but also through his choice and critical awareness. Zhu’s relationship with Confucianism and Buddhism is a typical case; and his activities, ranging from his research of Buddhism (the Chan School) in his early days to his farewell to the Chan School as a student of Li Dong from Yanping and then to his critical awareness of the Chan School, developed in his association with Wang Yingchen, set the entire course of his relationship with Confucianism and Buddhism. It fostered his antagonistic attitude towards the Chan School, which lasted his entire life. Zhu approached the Chan School mainly as an objective social and cultural phenomenon; his discrimination between Confucianism and Buddhism was from an epistemological point of view; and his refutation of the Chan School was mainly from the point of view of language and methodology, an antagonistic attitude of how to face learning. Therefore, his opposition to the Chan School not only directly fostered an awareness of the Confucians of the Ming dynasty against Buddhism, who simply viewed the latter as an external and objective existence, but to a certain extent resulted in the disappearance of the transcendence of the School of Principles, and caused a total change in academic direction during the Ming and Qing dynasties and the formation of the Qianjia Hanxue. What is more, such an opposition to Buddhism continues to influence people’s understanding of the School of Principles.

The Spirit of the School of Principles in Zhu Xi's Discussion of "Dreams"—And on "Confucius did not Dream of Duke Zhou"

Dreams were a topic of study even in ancient times, and they are a special spiritual phenomenon. Generations of literati have defined the meaning of dreams in their own way, while Zhu Xi was perhaps the most outstanding one among them. He made profound explanations of dreams from aspects such as the relationship between dreams and the principles li and qi, the relationship between dreams and the state of the heart, and the relationship between dreams and an individual’s moral improvement. He summarized previous generations’ understanding of dreams and infused a new dimension from the School of Principles, pointing out a direction for individuals’ moral cultivation and spiritual pursuit. Zhu Xi also examined the opinions of Zhang Zai, Cheng Yi, Hu Hong and other thinkers on Confucius not dreaming of Duke Zhou in his later years, revealing differences between thinkers in the School of Principles. An analysis of Zhu Xi’s thoughts on dreams will provide deeper insight into the research on the School of Principles.

A Preliminary Discussion of Dai Zhen’s Philosophy of Language

Dai Zhen’s philosophy of language took the opportunity of a transition in Chinese philosophy to develop a form of humanist positivism, which was different from both the Song and Ming dynasties’ School of Principles and the early Qing dynasty’s philosophical forms. His philosophy of language had four primary manifestations: (1) It differentiated between “names pointing at entities and real events” and “names describing summum bonum and perfection”; (2) In discussing the metaphysical issue of “the Dao,” it was the first to introduce a syntax analysis of linguistics, clearly differentiating between the different roles of predicate verbs “zhi wei” and “wei zhi” in Classical Chinese; (3) In criticizing Confucian thought during the Song and Ming dynasties, it adopted specific philological skills such as the analysis of phraseology, the meaning of sentences and the thread of words in texts; and (4) It re-interpreted the meaning of Confucian classics by studying characters and language, adopting a positivist and philological manner to seek metaphysical sense in philosophy. In this way, his philosophy was different from the scholars of the School of Principles during the Song and Ming dynasties and from the goal of Western linguistic philosophy in the 20th century, which refuted metaphysics. Accordingly, it helped to develop 18th century Chinese philosophy as it turned towards linguistic philology.

«Mein Geist ist das Universum»

Abstract Lu Jiuyuan (1139-1193) is one of the most prominent philosophers of the Song dynasty. He belonged to the School of Mind (Xin-Xue), one of the two main schools of Neo-Confucianism - the other being the School of Principle (Li Xue), of which Zhu Xi (1130-1200) is the outstanding figure. This essay investigates the onto-logical and epistemological teachings of Lu Jiuyuan and compares them with the thought of other Neo-Confucian thinkers such as Zhu Xi. The most important term in Zhu Xi's philosophy is li (universal principle). Lu Jiuyuan equated li with the mind of man. He developed his philosophy on the basis of li- present in and apprehended by the mind - as the moral criterion of human conduct. For him, the purpose of study is to recognize li and return to the originally pure condition of the mind. Every man, he said, is responsible for the condition of his mind and must strive to attain knowledge of the truth. Lu refused to consider as important the acquisition of factual knowledge by external investigation, emphasizing instead that li is to be known intuitively. The realization of li is the result of inner, subjective self-examination.

The "Four-Seven Debate" and the School of Principle in Korea

The "Four-Seven Debate" and the School of Principle in Korea

On Zhu Xi'S Metaphysical Theory of "Investigating Things" [Gewu

In order to establish his "school of principle" system of thought, which was founded on objective idealism, Zhu Xi proposed a theory of "investigating things and exhausting principles" [gewu qiongli]. This became the epistemological foundation for his system of thought. This epistemology formed an organic whole with his world view. On the one hand, his "theory-of-investigating-things" epistemology opened up pathways for his system of objective idealism; on the other hand, his "school-of-principle" system formed the theoretical foundation for his epistemology of "investigating things" and gave this epistemology its obviously metaphysical characteristics.

A Critique of the Philosophical Thought of Lu Jiuyuan

Lu Jiuyuan was an idealist philosopher representing the "school of mind," which, since the time of the Southern Song dynasty [1127-1279], has always stood in opposition to the "school of principle" in idealist philosophy, this latter being represented by Zhu Xi. Lu has also matched Zhu Xi in reputation all the way.