School-level Predictors Research Articles

Understanding School Leadership’s Influence on Teacher Retention in High-Poverty Settings: An Exploratory Study in the U.S.

Research has identified principal leadership as one of the most salient school-level predictors of teacher retention. However, the survey-based quantitative nature and specific survey questions used in this research make it difficult to discern which leadership behaviors or approaches contribute most to teacher retention. As a result, school leaders and those responsible for preparing and/or employing them lack clear, research-based information about specific practices that could be effectively utilized, particularly in high-poverty schools. This qualitative case study, set in a high-poverty U. S. elementary school with high retention rates, utilized Simon and Johnson’s (2015) framework of how principal behaviors that increase teacher retention in the quantitative research are exhibited in under-resourced schools. The study generates qualitative understandings of how a principal’s actions contributed to retention by reaffirming a mission to serve high-poverty students, recognizing teachers for their work, developing and fostering within-faculty relationships, strengthening relationships with families, and providing disciplinary support. In doing so, the study also provides support for an existing framework for leading for retention and insights into how these actions may influence or be seen in survey responses used in survey-based research.

Examining the Psychometrics and Characteristics of the Assessing School Settings: Interactions of Students and Teachers

This article focuses on the psychometric properties and characteristics of the Assessing School Settings: Interactions of Students and Teachers (ASSIST), an observational assessment administered by trained external observers of teacher practices, classroom context, and student behaviors at the classroom level. Study 1 examines variability, reliability, and convergence between ASSIST scores with data from 3,298 classrooms nested within 185 elementary, middle, and high schools. We report school-level intraclass correlations (ICCs), standard deviations, means, and reliability estimates of ASSIST scales; investigate the correspondence among ASSIST-measured constructs with multilevel correlations; and explore school-level predictors of ASSIST global scale scores. Study 2 further examines reliability over time and convergent validity using repeated ASSIST and Classroom Assessment Scoring System–Secondary (CLASS-S) observations in classrooms of 335 teachers in 41 middle schools. The ASSIST global measures exhibited moderate to good reliability across three same-teacher observations (ICCs ranged from .69 to .82). Associations between all ASSIST and CLASS-S scales suggested close correspondence of the measures, especially at the teacher level and school level. Together, these findings highlight the utility of the ASSIST observational measure, both as a research and practice tool, across multiple school types and classroom contexts, and with potential to inform coaching to improve teachers’ classroom management.

How informal mentoring by teachers, counselors, and coaches supports students' long-run academic success

We document a largely unrecognized pathway through which schools promote human capital development – by fostering informal mentoring relationships between students and their teachers, counselors, and coaches. Using longitudinal data from a nationally representative sample of adolescents, we explore the nature and consequences of natural mentoring relationships by leveraging within-student variation in the timing of mentorship formation as well as differences in exposure among pairs of twins, best friends, and romantic partners. Results across difference-in-differences and pair fixed-effect specifications show consistent and meaningful positive effects on student attainment, with a conservative estimate of a 9.4 percentage point increase in college attendance. Effects are largest for students of lower socioeconomic status and robust to controls for individual characteristics and bounding exercises for selection on unobservables. Smaller class sizes and a school culture where students have a strong sense of belonging are important school-level predictors of having a K-12 natural mentor.

School and teacher level predictors of organizational loyalty in an era of school reform

Teachers’ organizational loyalty plays a critical role in the success of reforms in periods when educational reforms gain momentum. This study examined the effects of charismatic leadership, trust in leader, and teacher engagement on teachers’ organizational loyalty based on data collected from 872 teachers in 77 public schools in Türkiye. We examined the predictors of organizational loyalty at the school and teacher levels via multilevel analysis. Using structural equation modeling and bootstrapping test, we also investigated the mediating role of teacher engagement and trust in leader in the relationship between charismatic leadership and organizational loyalty. The results of multilevel analysis demonstrated that school- and teacher-level variables were significant predictors of organizational loyalty. The mediation test results revealed that the relationship between charismatic leadership and organizational loyalty is realized through teacher engagement and trust in leader. Based on the findings, we discussed the effects of charismatic leadership, engagement, and trust in leader on teachers’ loyalty.

An Investigation of Variables Predicting the Reading Literacy in Pisa 2018

This study aims to determine variables predicting students’ reading literacy in the PISA application. Turkey’s PISA 2018 sample data that consisted of 186 schools and 6890, representing 12 regions from Turkey were analyzed by conducting a two-level hierarchical linear modeling to examine students’ reading literacy at the student and school levels. The results indicated that, according to the student-level predictors, female students had higher reading literacy and the reading literacy was positively influenced by an increase in predictors of father’s education level, predictors showing metacognition levels, socioeconomic levels, parents’ emotional support to the students, reading pleasure levels, and reading attitudes. Considering the school-level predictors, deficiencies in educational materials and student behaviors hindering learning reduced achievement, whereas teacher behaviors hindering learning had a positive effect on achievement. Offering extracurricular creative activities in the school environment reduced the negative impact of the educational status of the mother to a certain extent. The sub-dimension of the metacognitive level assessment had an increased impact on reading literacy, but student behaviors hindering learning had a negative effect on it. Considering the findings, the reasons for the low level of reading literacy of students and how it can be increased were discussed.

Predicting academic achievement and student absences in high school: The roles of student and school attributes.

The present study aims at examining predictors of high school students' academic achievement from student-level and school-level predictors in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, especially in light of policy mandates on educational reform in accordance with Vision 2030. Participants were 528,854 individuals who took on the Standard Achievement Admission Test (SAAT), along with other demographic variables. The mean age of participants was 19.7 years with an SD = 1.87. There were 234,813 males and 294,041 females. A Multilevel Random Coefficient Modeling (MRCM) model was engaged to identify predictors of academic achievement. Results indicated the positive roles of being a female, having educational parents, being educated in religious schools or large schools, and having small student-to-teacher ratios and the negative roles of student absences, student age, and being educated in new schools. Results are viewed under the lenses of new policy mandates on educational reform in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Relationships between social climate and indoor environmental quality and frequently reported health symptoms among teachers and staff in a suburban school district

Public school teachers represent one of the largest occupational groups in the United States and are vulnerable to job stress and burnout. School social and physical environments may be adversely impacting the health of teachers and other staff, though few studies have explored these relationships. We partnered with a suburban school district in Colorado to assess the association between school environmental quality, social climate, and staff member health. We modeled the number of self-reported frequent health symptoms (experienced at least once a week) using generalized linear models. School-level predictors of interest included: overall social climate scores (unitless), building operations report card (ORC) scores (unitless), and indoor air quality (IAQ) scores (unitless). In total, we had data from 134 staff members from 11 schools in the district. A majority (62%) of our participants were teachers, who reported a greater number of frequent (i.e., at least once a week) health symptoms (mean = 3.2 symptoms experienced at least once per week) compared to staff in other roles (mean = 2.3 symptoms per week). We found that a one standard-deviation (10.5) increase in the overall social climate score was associated with a 0.77-fold (95% CI: 0.60–0.99) change in the number of frequent health symptoms reported. However, this association was attenuated among teachers compared to other staff members. Our results suggested effect modification by social climate on the relationship between IAQ and health, albeit with some uncertainty. For participants with a school climate score below the mean, a one standard-deviation (10.5) increase in IAQ score was associated with a 0.49-fold (95% CI: 0.35–0.70) change in the number of frequently reported symptoms. Overall, our study suggests school climate may be associated with self-reported health symptoms, but that the benefits of improved school climates may not be as strong for teachers compared to other staff. Future work should assess perceived climate at the individual level to assess how staff roles impact how school environments are associated with health outcomes.

School-Level Predictors of Speech-Language Therapy Enrollment

Purpose: There are extensive concerns about the size of speech-language caseloads in schools. However, little empirical data exist regarding the patterns of speech-language services enrollment. We reviewed data from several hundred schools in a large state to explore the role of school-level factors in speech-language case enrollment. Method: Child count and enrollment data reports from a stratified sample of schools located within 12 Florida school districts ( N = 808) were drawn from the Florida Department of Education portal for the 2018–2019 school year. Three school districts were selected from each of several population sizes. To control for school population size, the raw numbers for each variable were converted into proportions. To examine the relations among variables, multiple correlational and regression analyses were conducted. Results: The results indicated that two school-level factors significantly predicted the total speech-language services enrollment and language therapy enrollment (e.g., proportion of students of low socioeconomic status [SES], passing the state reading assessment), whereas three school factors significantly predicted the speech therapy enrollment (e.g., proportion of low-SES students, passing the reading assessment, and enrolled in English as a second or other language services). Conclusions: The outcomes of this study suggested that school factors can predict speech-language service enrollment, which offers important implications for decision makers in schools. Implications for educational practices and further research are presented.

Predictors of Active Transportation Among Safe Routes to School Participants in Arizona: Impacts of Distance and Income.

Active transportation to school (ATS) is a component of a whole school approach to health promotion among youth. Individual- and school-level predictors of ATS were examined using data from parent surveys (N=11,100) of students in grades 3-8 attending 112 schools in Arizona (United States) administering Safe Routes to School (SRTS) programs between 2007 and 2018. Multilevel logistic models were estimated to predict the likelihood of students using active (walking or biking) versus inactive travel (riding bus or car) to and from school, and across distance and school-level income categories. Student grade, parent education, asking permission to use ATS, perceived health and school support for ATS, distance, and school income were predictive of ATS. The impact of demographic factors persisted across distances of ½ mile or less and at low- and medium-income schools but diminished as distance and income increased. Asking permission and perceived school support persisted across levels of distance and income, while perceiving ATS as healthy was significant only for distances under 1 mile. SRTS programs should continue promoting health benefits and school support for ATS. SRTS may be particularly effective at low- and medium-income schools and among families living within ½ mile distances.

Student- and School-Level Predictors of Geography Achievement in the United States, 1994–2018

This paper examines national gaps and trends in geography achievement in eighth grade from 1994 to 2018. Statistical models comprising student- and school-level variables were developed to predict achievement using data provided by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Although there were statistically significant relationships between achievement and school-level attributes such as geographic region and school sector, the magnitudes of the coefficients were relatively minor and inconsistent over time compared with student-level characteristics such as gender, race, ethnicity, and parental education. The results inform current policy directions and efforts to foster educational equity in K-12 geography.

Individual- and School-level Predictors of Latent Profiles of Bullying Victimization: Comparing South Korea and the United States.

This cross-national research investigated nationally representative adolescents from South Korea and the United States, explored similarities and differences in latent profiles of bullying victimization between countries, and examined individual- and school-level variables that predict such latent profiles supported by the Social Disorganization Theory. The fourth-grade sample of the 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study from South Korea (N = 4,669) and the United States (N = 10,029) was used to conduct a latent profile analysis based on eight items of the bullying victimization questionnaire. Multilevel logistic regression was conducted using latent profiles as dependent variables. Independent variables include individual-level (material goods, school absence, academic interest, school belonging) and school-level (concentration of affluent families, school resources, the severity of delinquency, academic commitment) factors. More similarities existed than differences in the latent groups of bullying victimization between South Korea (rare, low-moderate, verbal-relational-physical, and multi-risk) and the United States (rare, low-moderate, verbal-relational, and multi-risk). Evidence for school-level variables as predictors of bullying victimization profiles was stronger for adolescents in the United States, with a concentration of affluent families and severity of delinquency being significant in four of the six models. For the South Korean sample, the severity of delinquency predicted bullying victimization in only one model. Examination of both individual- and school-level factors that predict unique bullying victimization experiences grounded in Social Disorganization Theory may be informative for addressing key areas of intervention-especially at the school-level context in which victimization primarily takes place and where anti-bullying intervention programs are often provided.

Een multilevel onderzoek naar het effect van tablet gebruik in Nederlandse basisscholen op leesprestaties

Abstract A multilevel study into the effect of tablet use in Dutch primary schools on reading achievementsThis study utilized data from the 2016 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study to examine the effect of the frequency of tablet usage in school on children’s reading achievements. It further addressed the gender gap in achievements by exploring whether gender moderates the relationship between tablet use and achievements. The sample consisted of 3504 fourth grade students from Dutch primary schools. A multilevel model was conducted in which both student- and school-level predictors were included. Contrary to the positive effect of tablet use on reading achievements found by most previous studies, the findings suggested no relationship between tablet use and achievements. There was also no evidence found that gender moderates this relationship. Results are critically discussed and recommendations for future research are being made.

Educators' perceived mental health literacy and capacity to support students' mental health: associations with school-level characteristics and provision in England.

Conceptual frameworks for school-based, preventive interventions recognise that educators’ capacity is, in part, dependent on school-level characteristics. This study aimed to (i) examine the factor structure and internal consistency of the Mental Health Literacy and Capacity Survey for Educators (MHLCSE); (ii) assess responses in relation to supporting students’ mental health; (iii) describe schools’ mental health provision in terms of designated roles, training offered, and perceived barriers; (iv) investigate variance in MHLCSE outcomes explained by schools; and, (v) explore school-level predictors of educators’ perceived MHL and capacity after controlling for individual-level characteristics. A multi-level, cross-sectional design involving 710 educators across 248 schools in England was used, and secondary analyses of baseline data collected as part of the Education for Wellbeing Programme were conducted. Mental health provision data was available for 206 schools, of which 95% offered training to some staff, and 71% had a designated mental health lead. Secondary schools offered significantly more training than primary schools. Significant barriers included lack of capacity in Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS) and within school, and communication challenges between agencies. The amount of training offered by schools significantly predicted educators’ awareness and knowledge of mental health issues, treatments and services, legislation and processes for supporting students’ mental health and comfort providing active support, with increased training predicting higher scores. However, little variance was explained by schools (1.7–12.1%) and school-level variables (0.7–1.2%). Results are discussed in relation to current mental health and education policy in England.

Multilevel Approach to Exploring Predictors of College Readiness in Reading and Mathematics

For high school graduates and non-graduates, this paper explored significant student and school level predictors of college readiness in reading and mathematics for 9,952 students from 52 schools in one of the largest school districts in the United States. This study employed a two-level Hierarchical Generalized Linear Model (HGLM) that included student level (level-1) and school level (level-2) predictors in order to predict three categories of college readiness formed in combination with high school graduates and non-graduates. The results presented the list of significant predictors and across-school variances for predicting college readiness in reading and mathematics. The results found several academic, behavioral, and demographic predictors at student and school levels producing significant effects on college readiness in reading and mathematics. The across-school variance components for predicting the probabilities of mastery in college readiness both in reading and mathematics are found significant.

Towards a Comprehensive School Effectiveness Model of Citizenship Education: An Empirical Analysis of Secondary Schools in The Netherlands

We still have only a limited understanding of the effectiveness of schools in promoting citizenship, the factors explaining this effectiveness and the way in which these aspects interact. Using elaborate cross-sectional data from students, teachers, team leaders and school leaders at 78 Dutch secondary schools, this study empirically examines a school effectiveness model of citizenship education in order to achieve a more comprehensive explanation of citizenship competence acquisition. Using multilevel structural equation models, we analyze direct and indirect school-level predictors of student knowledge, attitudes and self-evaluated skills regarding citizenship. Four aspects of citizenship education are examined: the school’s policies regarding citizenship education, its teaching practices, and its professional and pedagogical learning environment (i.e., teaching community and classroom climate). With respect to school policies, positive effects are found for the attention paid to citizenship education in staff meetings. The professional learning environment is related to students’ citizenship competences mainly indirectly, via the average classroom climate. Effects of teaching practices vary: more emphasis on monitoring is more frequently found at schools with lower average levels of citizenship competences, whereas schools that let students choose their own topics in class have on average higher levels of citizenship competences.

A multilevel analysis of gross motor coordination of children and adolescents living at different altitudes: the Peruvian Health and Optimist Growth Study

Background Gross motor coordination (GMC) is a potential correlate of lifestyle behaviours and health outcomes in childhood and adolescence. Aims The aim of this study was to examine how sex, age, biological maturation, overweight, stunting, and physical fitness are associated with GMC in children and adolescents from Peru, and to examine associations between geographical area of residence, school-level characteristics, and GMC. Subjects and methods The sample included 7408 subjects, aged 6–14 years, from sea level, Amazon and high-altitude regions of Peru. A composite marker of total coordination was derived by the sum of scores from each test (GMCT). Overweight was identified using BMI, and biological maturation, physical fitness, and stunting were assessed. School characteristics were obtained via an objective audit. Results Boys (β = 12.23 ± 0.90) and older children (β = 13.37 ± 0.64) had higher GMCT than girls and younger children, respectively. Overweight was associated with lower GMCT (β = −5.23 ± 0.80), whereas fitness was positively associated with GMCT (β = 6.30 ± 0.25). Biological maturation was not a predictor; however, stunting was negatively associated with GMCT (β = −3.71 ± 1.56). Subjects living in the Amazon had higher GMCT than those at sea level (β = 16.57 ± 4.73). Five of nine school-level predictors (number of students, playground area with obstacles, multi-sports roofed, frequency and duration of Physical Education classes) were significant predictors of GMCT. Conclusions Child- and school-level variables were significantly associated with GMCT in this sample. These findings are important for the Peruvian community, especially school principals, councils and physical education teachers, helping them to define more efficient strategies and action plans to increase motor coordination in children.

Determinants of an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis in childhood and adolescence: Evidence from the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

This study aimed to identify determinants of a late autism spectrum disorder diagnosis, including diagnoses made ‘very late’ (i.e., in adolescence), using the Millennium Cohort Study, a nationally representative population-based cohort in the United Kingdom. Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder by age 14 (N = 581) were included and grouped by the parent-reported timing of diagnosis: before school (up to age 5), during primary school (age 5–11) and during secondary school (age 11–14). Predictors of diagnostic timing, at the child, family and school levels, were investigated using multinomial logistic regression. Most (79%) children with autism spectrum disorder were diagnosed after school entry, and 28% were not diagnosed until secondary school. Among those not diagnosed until secondary school, 75% had been identified at age 5 years by a parent and/or teacher as having socio-behavioural difficulties. Being diagnosed after starting school was predicted by living in poverty (adjusted relative risk ratio: primary = 1.90, 95% confidence interval: 1.03–3.53; secondary = 2.15, 1.05–4.42) and/or having no initial parental concerns (primary = 0.32, 0.15–0.70; secondary = 0.19, 0.09–0.43). Having typical-range intelligence also predicted diagnosis during secondary school. The result indicates that those without cognitive delays and poorer children were at risk of ‘very late’ (i.e. adolescent) diagnosis. Strategies to promote earlier identification, targeting age at primary school entry, could help those more likely to be diagnosed late. Lay abstract Despite policy emphasis on early identification, many children with autism spectrum disorder are diagnosed late, with some being diagnosed as late as in adolescence. However, evidence on what determines the timing of autism spectrum disorder diagnosis including children diagnosed in adolescence is lacking. Understanding these determinants, particularly in those diagnosed later than is ideal, can inform the development of effective strategies to improve earlier identification of autism spectrum disorder. This study used a nationally representative population-based cohort in the United Kingdom to explore child, family and school level predictors of timing of autism spectrum disorder diagnosis. In the United Kingdom, 79% of the children with autism spectrum disorder were diagnosed after entering primary school and 28% during secondary school. Among those not diagnosed until secondary school, 75% had shown social difficulties noticed by parents and/or teachers at age 5 years. The results suggest that healthcare providers should be aware that, even for universal systems of care, those living in poverty and having higher intelligence are most likely to miss out on a timely diagnosis. Strategies to promote earlier identification among school-aged children, including targeting primary school entry age (i.e. around age 5) and that encouraging referrals for a formal assessment at the first report of concerns over the child’s social development may benefit those children who would otherwise be diagnosed later.

School and Student Level Prevalence and Predictors of Weapon-Related Behaviors and Experiences Among Secondary Schools in California

Importance: The first study to examine prevalence and correlates of weapon-related behaviors on school ground both on student- and school levels on a large and representative sample of a whole state. Objective: To assess the prevalence of weapon-related behaviors in secondary schools in California, their intercorrelations and predictors on the individual and school levels. Design: Secondary analysis of the California Healthy Kids survey among secondary school students in California in 2013-2015. Setting: Survey conducted in grades 7,9,11 in public schools. Participants: 889,726 students (50.5% females), from 2,641 schools. Outcome(s) and Measure(s): Dependent variables (last year): Carrying a gun in school; carrying another weapon; threatened/injured with weapon; seeing students carrying weapons. Predictors include socio-demographic characteristics of the student and family, school violence involvement (victimization, gang affiliation), and school climate. Results: Prevalence ranged from 3.1% of students carrying gun to 17.9% saw another student with a weapon. In 3.3% of schools i more than 15% of students carry a weapon and in 5.8% of schools, 15% or more were injured/threatened with weapons. Weapon-related behaviors were inter-correlated: proportion of students in school who reported carrying a gun was r=.71 (p<.001) with both the proportion of students who carried other weapons and were threatened/injured. Both student- and school level prevalence were predictable. For students, R2 ranged from 36.9%, threatened/injured to 24.5% seeing a weapon. For schools, R2 ranged from 56.3%, carrying another weapon to 45.7%, seeing a student with a weapon. The strongest predictors are the number of transgender students, gang members, and victimized students, and particularly victimized because of their disability. Conclusions and Relevance: Tens of thousands of students are involved in weapon-related behaviors in schools. Many schools have only few involved students, while few schools have large numbers of students carrying weapons. This is important for prevention public health policies and practices. Funding Statement: None to declare Declaration of Interests: None to declare

Still Green at Fifteen? Investigating Environmental Awareness of the PISA 2015 Population: Cross-National Differences and Correlates

The PISA studies provide unique opportunities to investigate the competencies and attitudes of 15-year-olds across the world. Past research investigating environmental awareness (EA) in PISA 2006 found associations between EA and science-related competencies and attitudes. Investigating EA in the PISA studies may have important implications for education for sustainable development (ESD): results may show which factors should be considered in educational interventions to enhance students’ EA. Cross-national analyses of EA may provide insights into the predictors of EA on a local, national or international level. This study investigates the individual, school, and country level predictors of EA in PISA 2015 (365,194 students, 12,594 schools, 53 countries). The multi-level regression analysis on EA reveals that most of the variance is located at the student level. On the individual level, variables related to science learning in school are associated with EA across all countries. This study also compares the degrees of EA in the 2006 and 2015 populations. The results show similar degrees of EA in 2006 and 2015. Altogether, the study provides cross-country evidence on important aspects that should be addressed in successful ESD programs.

National Trends and School-Level Predictors of Restraint and Seclusion for Students with Disabilities

ABSTRACT The use of restraint and seclusion in schools puts students at risk of injury or, in extreme cases, even death. As a result, advocacy organizations and the U.S. Department of Education have developed and proliferated policy and legislative recommendations to reduce such use. Nevertheless, incidents of restraint and seclusion continue to occur, and more frequently with students with disabilities. In this study, we leveraged the most recent U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights Data to examined the prevalence of restraint and seclusion use for students with and without disabilities and school-level predictors of increased restraint and seclusion incidents. We found that students with disabilities are seven times more likely to be restrained and four times more likely to be secluded. We also found that students in special education schools are almost guaranteed to receive a restraint or seclusion. The results are then contextualized using prior research and policy recommendations.