School-level Contextual Factors Research Articles

Links Between Early-Life Contextual Factors and Later-Life Cognition and the Role of Educational Attainment

Educational attainment is a well-documented predictor of later-life cognition, but less is known about upstream contextual factors. This study aimed to identify which early-life contextual factors uniquely predict later-life global cognition and whether educational attainment mediates these relationships. Participants were drawn from the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project (N=461; Mage=63.51; SDage=3.13; 50% non-Hispanic Black). School-level contextual factors included U.S. region during elementary school (Midwest, South, Northeast), racial diversity of school (mostly White, mostly Black, diverse), self-reported education quality, and school type (public versus private). Household-level contextual factors included mother’s and/or father’s education, number of adults (1, 2, 3+), and number of children. Later-life global cognition was operationalized with a composite score derived from a comprehensive neuropsychological battery. A mediation model controlling for sociodemographics estimated total, direct, and indirect effects of contextual factors through educational attainment (years). Lower education quality, attending a mostly Black or diverse school, attending a public school, and reporting three or more adults in the household were each associated with lower cognition. After accounting for educational attainment, associations remained for education quality, school type, and reporting three or more adults in the household. Indirect effects through educational attainment were observed for elementary school region, education quality, racial diversity of school, and mother’s education. School context appears to more consistently predict later-life cognition than household context, highlighting the potential long-term benefits of school-level interventions for cognitive aging. Future research should consider causal relationships among household-level and school-level contextual factors, as well as additional mediators beyond educational attainment.

Scaling standards-aligned instruction through teacher leadership: methods, supports, and challenges

BackgroundThe Common Core Standards for Mathematics and Next Generation Science Standards were adopted by states with the goal of preparing students with knowledge and skills needed for college, careers, and citizenry. Adopting these standards necessitated considerable changes in instructional practice. While teacher leadership is known to be important for instructional change, there is little research that articulates the processes through which that influence occurs, and how contextual factors constrain or support those processes. This paper provides a case study of efforts in the Chicago Public Schools to promote widespread instructional change around standards reform through a teacher leader model using retrospective from 2013 to 2017 interviews with 16 math and science teacher leaders serving grades 6–12, along with quantitative analysis of district-wide data showing patterns of change and professional learning. It builds off prior research to articulate a framework of how teacher leaders promote instructional change.FindingsThere were five patterns of teacher leader action: inspiring others, sharing with colleagues, working in collaboration, advocating for change, and providing individual support, and an interplay between teacher actions and school-level contextual factors, with some contextual factors more important than others for different types of actions. In particular, sharing and collaborative work were facilitated in schools with designated collaboration time, trusting relationships, and colleagues who were also trained and knowledgeable about the new standards. The degree of collective efficacy the teacher leaders felt seemed to be driven mostly by the presence of other knowledgeable change agents in the school.Conclusions and implicationsThe study adds to the existing literature on teacher leadership by articulating the mechanisms through which teachers exert influence around instructional improvement of their school peers and providing examples of each. Further, the study illustrates how these mechanisms are facilitated or constrained by the larger school context. Together, the articulation of mechanisms and contexts, along with illustrative examples, provides a guide for supporting instructional change through teacher leadership in schools and districts.

Examining Variation in Adolescent Bystanders' Responses to Bullying

Latent class analysis was used to examine whether patterns of bystander responses varied as a function of both student- and school-level characteristics. Data from 18,863 high school students from 58 schools who “ever witnessed bullying” were used to identify five latent classes of bystander behavior. Three of the classes identified paralleled commonly used researcher-identified categories (Passive = 9.7%, Defender = 20.4%, and Contributor = 3.4%), whereas we also identified two patterns of bystander responses that had not been previously characterized (Limited = 64.8% and Inconsistent = 1.7%). Multilevel logistic regression models were then used to examine student- and school-level characteristics that differentiate those in the defender class from other bystander classes. Youth in the defender class were more likely to believe that other students intervene with bullying, and they felt a greater connection with school staff as compared to youth in all other bystander classes. Further, gender, normative beliefs about retaliation, and bullying involvement were associated with class membership. Findings indicated that defending bystander responses are relatively low and suggested that school-level contextual factors, youth perceptions of others' bystander behavior, and bullying involvement all inform our understanding of adolescent bystander behavior.

A multilevel examination of racial disparities in high school discipline: Black and white adolescents’ perceived equity, school belonging, and adjustment problems.

National data have shown for decades that Black students experience more frequent and severe disciplinary actions that remove them from school (e.g., suspension), compared with their White peers. Despite extensive research documenting the sequelae associated with suspension (e.g., school drop-out and delinquency), there has been relatively scant research addressing the discipline gap as it relates to students’ sense of belonging and equitable treatment at school, or to potential adjustment problems it may evoke. The present observational study examined the Black–White discipline gap in 58 high schools with a sample of 19,726 adolescents (Black n = 7,064, White n = 12,622) in Maryland. Employing a multilevel framework and leveraging data from the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights and the student-report Maryland Safe and Supportive Schools (MDS3) School Climate Survey, we characterized 58 high schools by their excess in Black relative to White student risk of out-of-school suspension. We then assessed whether Black students’ excess risk of out-of-school suspension was negatively associated with perceived school equity and school belonging, and positively associated with adjustment problems (i.e., externalizing symptoms) in a stratified analysis of White and Black students. We found that school-level discipline gaps were associated with Black students’ perceptions of less school equity (γ = −.54, p < .001), less school belonging (γ = −.50, p < .001), and increased adjustment problems (γ = .77, p < .001), even when accounting for student demographics (i.e., gender, grade level, socioeconomic status) and school-level contextual factors (i.e., socioeconomic status, student diversity, overall suspension rates), whereas these associations were not significant for White students. Study findings have implications for educational reform in high schools in which out-of-school suspension practices differ by race.

A Multilevel MTMM Approach to Estimating the Influences of Contextual Factors on Trait and Informant-Based Method Effects in Assessments of School Climate

School-level contextual factors have been found to influence reports of school climate. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the extent to which these associations are related to the school climate traits being measured or the methods (i.e., informants) used to obtain them. Data from a multilevel multitrait–multimethod (MTMM) design in which structurally different and interchangeable students ( n = 45,641) and teachers ( n = 12,808), residing within 302 high schools, responded to items measuring four dimensions of school climate were evaluated through a multilevel correlated trait–correlated method (CT-CM) latent analysis that allowed for the estimation of both school-level trait and informant-based method factors. The resulting trait and method factors were regressed on several school-level contextual variables. Results indicated that the percentage of students receiving free and reduced-price meals (FRPM) in schools was associated with both school climate traits and informant-based method factors, school size and the percentage of minority students in schools were associated with some traits, and school size was associated with student method effects. Findings support the use of controlling for school-level contextual factors in school climate research.

Examining Contextual Influences on Classroom-Based Implementation of Positive Behavior Support Strategies: Findings from a Randomized Controlled Effectiveness Trial.

Although it is widely recognized that variation in implementation fidelity influences the impact of preventive interventions, little is known about how specific contextual factors may affect the implementation of social and behavioral interventions in classrooms. Theoretical research highlights the importance of multiple contextual influences on implementation, including factors at the classroom and school level (Domitrovich et al., Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 1, 6-28, 2008). The current study used multi-level modeling to empirically examine the influence of teacher, classroom, and school characteristics on the implementation of classroom-based positive behavior support strategies over the course of 4years. Data were collected in the context of a 37-school randomized controlled trial examining the effectiveness of school-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Multi-level results identified several school-level contextual factors (e.g., school size, behavioral disruptions) and teacher-level factors (perceptions of school organizational health and grade level taught) associated with variability in the implementation of classroom-based positive behavior supports. Implications for prevention research and practice are discussed.

Individual Factors and School-Based Policies Related to Adherence to Physical Activity Recommendations in Spanish Adolescents

Our objective was to identify individual- and school-level contextual factors related to adherence to the recommendations for physical activity in adolescents. The study used a representative sample of 15,902 students from 328 schools aged 11-18 years participating in the Spanish Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) survey 2006. In addition to the student questionnaire, the school management board completed a questionnaire about school-based policies related to physical activity. Adherence to the recommendations was defined as "having carried out moderate and/or vigorous physical activity for at least 60 min a day on five or more days during the last week". Analysis was undertaken using multilevel logistic regression models. Individual factors associated in a statistically significant way with a higher non-compliance were: being female; being older; immigrants; tobacco smoking; being overweight or obese; low consumption of fruit and vegetables; low level of satisfaction with life; not having a high level of academic achievement; and spending a lot of time studying. The family variables were: not undertaking sports activities with the family; low socioeconomic status; and a low level of satisfaction with family relationships. Compared with schools that have a low level of policies to promote physical activities, those with a high level of promotion had an odds ratio of 0.76 (CI 95 %, 0.61-0.94). In summary, irrespective of personal and family factors, students from schools with better policies of promotion of physical activity showed a higher compliance with the recommendations.

Achievement for All: Improving psychosocial outcomes for students with special educational needs and disabilities

Students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are at a greatly increased risk of experiencing poor psychosocial outcomes. Developing effective interventions that address the cause of these outcomes has therefore become a major policy priority in recent years. We report on a national evaluation of the Achievement for All (AfA) programme that was designed to improve outcomes for students with SEND through: (1) academic assessment, tracking and intervention, (2) structured conversations with parents, and (3) developing provision to improve wider outcomes (e.g. positive relationships). Using a quasi-experimental, pre-test-post-test control group design, we assessed the impact of AfA on teacher ratings of the behaviour problems, positive relationships and bullying of students with SEND over an 18-month period. Participants were 4758 students with SEND drawn from 323 schools across England. Our main impact analysis demonstrated that AfA had a significant impact on all three response variables when compared to usual practice. Hierarchical linear modelling of data from the intervention group highlighted a range of school-level contextual factors and implementation activities and student-level individual differences that moderated the impact of AfA on our study outcomes. The implications of our findings are discussed, and study strengths and limitations are noted.

Predicting High School Students’ Interest in Majoring in a STEM Field: Insight into High School Students’ Postsecondary Plans

This study examined how various individual, family, and school level contextual factors impact the likelihood of planning to major in one of the science, technology, engineering, or mathematics (STEM) fields for high school students. A binary logistic regression model was developed to determine the extent to which each of the covariates helped to predict such academic interest. High school course taking in science and performance on science and math standardized tests were significantly and positively related to an increased interest in STEM. College aspirations were significant, and those with loftier educational goals were generally more likely to plan to major in a STEM field. Other individual-level factors also played a significant role, as male high school students were significantly more likely to have an early interest in STEM relative to their female peers, as were African American high school students compared with White students. Low-income students were significantly more likely to be interested in STEM majors than higher income students, respectively. In terms of school-level context, while teacher academic qualifications had a negative but significant relationship with an early interest in STEM, teacher experience had a small but significant positive relationship.

Individual and Contextual Factors Associated to Smoking on School Premises

Despite regulations, tobacco consumption in schools is still very common. The objective was to evaluate the relationship of personal, family, and school-level contextual factors with smoking on school premises. A representative survey was undertaken of students in the 4th year of secondary education in the Madrid region (Spain), including 79 schools and 3,622 individuals. The student questionnaire gathered information about personal and family variables. The contextual factors were type of school, perception of compliance with the law, smoking policy, existence of complaints against smoking, and undertaking of educational activities regarding smoking. Analysis was carried out in the smoking population (n = 1,179) using multilevel logistic regression models. During the last 30 days, 50.6% of smokers had smoked on school premises. Having a father with a university education (in comparison with fathers who have not attained any educational level) reduces this probability (odds ratio [OR]: 0.43; 95% CI: 0.19-0.96), whereas smoking a larger number of cigarettes (p < .001), illicit drug consumption (p < .001), and low academic achievement (p = .052) increases it. The probability is reduced when there is no parental permission to smoke (OR: 0.66; 95% CI: 0.43-1.01) and is lower both in nonsubsidized private schools (OR: 0.29; 95% CI: 0.12-0.67) and in state subsidized private schools (OR: 0.17; 95% CI: 0.09-0.34) than in public schools. A very low level of educational attainment by the father, smoking a higher number of cigarettes, as well as illicit drug consumption, low academic achievement, having parental permission to smoke, and attending public schools are all related to a higher probability of smoking on school premises.

Fear of In-School Victimization: Contextual, Gendered, and Developmental Considerations

This study explores gendered and age-graded effects of key theoretical predictors of fear of crime among a panel of approximately 4,000 public middle and high school students in Kentucky. Theoretically, fear of school crime is presumed to be driven by individual-level indicators of vulnerability, as well as by school-level indicators of crime/disorder and social integration. Multilevel analysis revealed little effect of school-level contextual factors, whereas the key individual-level indicators of vulnerability were quite robust in their effects across male and female students. Further analysis, however, revealed that school context in the form of school-level delinquency significantly moderated the effect of individual-level perceived risk of victimization on fear for female students especially. Results provided little evidence of age-dependent correlates. In one exception, the positive effect of perceived risk of victimization on both male and female student fear declined, as students moved from the 7th grade to the 10th grade.

High Achievement on Advanced Placement Exams: The Relationship of School-Level Contextual Factors to Performance

The purpose of the study was to identify school- and district-level variables that relate to advanced academic achievement, as defined by the ratio of number of scores of 3, 4, or 5 on Advanced Placement exams to school enrollment. The study initially included 46 variables for 339 public high schools in one Midwestern state. Hierarchical linear regressions were applied to 14 and then 7 independent variables, explaining 80% of the variance in advanced academic achievement among high schools. Findings indicate that after accounting for seemingly fixed factors, schools and districts can still contribute significantly in the development of advanced academic achievement. Implications for educators and policy makers are discussed. Putting the Research to Use The percentage of minority students, percentage receiving free and reduced lunch, and the educational level of the community are common reasons given for explaining the lack of high achievement or the lack of advanced opportunities for the high-ability students in their schools. However, this study found that these fixed contextual variables, in general, do not limit the school from having a group of high performers among its students. The focus needs to be on what academic services and opportunities can be provided for high-ability students that will increase their academic preparation and therefore likelihood of graduating from college. Access to advanced courses is a factor within the control of school policy makers. The question to consider, then, is how might small schools with minimal resources offer these advanced courses for their high-ability students. One promising solution is to offer the AP courses through virtual means.

School Level Contextual Factors Are Associated With the Weight Status of Adolescent Males and Females

To determine whether school context influences the BMI of adolescent males and females. Our sample was 17,007 adolescents (aged 12-19) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). We used gender-stratified multilevel modeling to examine the contribution of schools to the overall variance in adolescent BMIs, calculated from self-reported weight and height. We then examined the associations of individual attributes with BMI after controlling for the average BMI of the school and the association of two school-level variables with BMI. Participants attended schools that were segregated by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES). In females, when controlling only for individual-level attributes, individual household income was inversely associated (beta = -0.043, P = 0.01) while Hispanic (beta = 0.89, P < 0.001) and black (beta = 1.61, P < 0.001) race/ethnicity were positively associated with BMI. In males, Hispanic (beta = 0.67, P < 0.001) race/ethnicity was positively associated with BMI; there was no difference in the BMIs of blacks compared with whites (beta = 0.24, P = 0.085). After controlling for the school racial/ethnic makeup and the school level median household income, the relationship between individual race/ethnicity and BMI was attenuated in both male and female adolescents. Higher school level median household income was associated with lower individual BMIs in adolescent girls (gamma = -0.37, P < 0.001) and boys (gamma = -0.29, P < 0.001) suggesting a contextual effect of the school. Male and female adolescents attending schools with higher median household incomes have on average lower BMIs. Resources available to or cultural norms within schools may constitute critical mechanisms through which schools impact the BMI of their students.

A multilevel analysis of school-based weapon possession*

In this study we present and estimate a multilevel model of weapon possession by students. Our approach extends existing research through an emphasis on the simultaneous effects of individual-level factors including fear, victimization, criminal lifestyle, pro-gun socialization, and social engagement, as well as school-level contextual factors including various indicators of school structure, school capital, and school deficits. We estimate multilevel main effects using hierarchical logistic regression methods and data from more than 6,000 students in 21 schools in Louisville, Kentucky. Results indicate that the likelihood of carrying a weapon to school varies not only across individuals but across schools. School-level structural characteristics—especially SES—were significant in accounting for some of this cross-school variation. Further, the effects of SES on weapon carrying were mediated by school capital and school deficits.