School Children In Communities Research Articles

Short-term, lagged association of airway inflammation, lung function, and asthma symptom score with PM2.5 exposure among schoolchildren within a high air pollution region in South Africa.

Asthma affects millions of people globally, and high levels of air pollution aggravate asthma occurrence. This study aimed to determine the association between short-term lagged PM2.5 exposure and airway inflammation, lung function, and asthma symptom scores among schoolchildren in communities in the Highveld high-pollution region in South Africa. A cross-sectional study was conducted among schoolchildren aged 9-14 years in six communities in the Highveld region in South Africa, between October 2018 and February 2019. A NIOX 200 instrument was used to measure fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO). Lung function indices (forced expiratory volume in one second [FEV1]; forced vital capacity [FVC] and FEV1/FVC) were collected using spirometry and the percent of predicted of these was based on the reference equations from the Global Lung Initiative, without ethnic correction. These values were further analyzed as binary outcomes following relevant thresholds (lower limits of normal for lung function and a cutoff of 35 ppb for FeNO). Asthma symptoms were used to create the asthma symptom score. Daily averages of PM2.5 data for the nearest monitoring station located in each community, were collected from the South African Air Quality Information System and created short-term 5-day lag PM2.5 concentrations. Additional reported environmental exposures were collected using standardized instruments. Of the 706 participating schoolchildren, only 1.13% of the participants had doctor-diagnosed asthma, compared to a prevalence of 6.94% with an asthma symptom score suggestive of asthma. Lag 1 (odds ratio [OR]: 1.01; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.00, 1.02, P = 0.039) and 5-day average lagged PM2.5 (OR: 1.02; 95% CI: 0.99, 1.04, P = 0.050) showed increased odds of the FeNO > 35 ppb. Lung function parameters (FEV1 < lower limit of normal [LLN] [OR: 1.02, 95% CI: 1.00, 1.03, P = 0.018], and FEV1/FVC < LLN [OR: 1.01; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.02, P < 0.001]) and asthma symptom score ≥ 2 (OR: 1.02; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.04, P = 0.039) also showed significant associations with lag 2, lag 4 and lag 1 of PM2.5, respectively. Lagged PM2.5 exposure was associated with an increased odds of airway inflammation and an increased odds of lung function parameters below the LLN particularly for the later lags, but a significant dose-response relationship across the entire sample was not consistent.

Measurement of Anthropometry of Community School Children Affected from Day Snacks

Purpose: To access the current snacking habits of community school children’s dietary habits and health status. Design/Methodology/Approach: The study was conducted in a Kathmandu community school to identify the problem of inadequate access to nutritious snacks, school choices, and regular monitoring and collaboration among the students. Used mixed methodologies, reviewed relevant day snack literatures, discussed with the school's early childhood department head, and measured height, weight, and MUAC to identify the nutrition status of children. Collected information was analysed using Ena (WHO software). Total Managl Secondary School, Kirtipur, Kathmandu participated in research n=26 (boys 16 and girls 10) and Mahendra Adarsha Secondary School, Mahalaxmi -4, Imadol, Lalitpur n=27 (boys 15 and girls 12) total numbers of participants 53 were. Findings/Results: There were (14) 63.6% boys and (8) 36.4% girls out which (2) 7.7% moderate and (1) 3.8% severe (1) 3.8% malnutrition in Mangal Secondary School where as (15) 55.6%boys and (12) 44.6% girls out of which (3) 11.1% moderate and equal (3) 11.1% severe malnutrition in Mahendra Adarsha Secondary School. There were severe wasting total (1) 4.5%, Moderate wasting (1) 4.5% and normal (20) 90.9% in Mangal Secondary School, Kirtipur -10, Kirtipur, Kathmandu whereas Moderate Wasting was (3) 11.1%, and normal (24) 88.9% were in Mahendra Adarsha Secondary School. At Mangal Secondary School, Kirtipur -10, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, the prevalence of stunting by age based on height-for-age Z-score showed severe stunting in children aged 42-53 months at 9.1%, moderate stunting at 13.6%, and normal height at 77.3%. Similarly, at Mahendra Adarsha Secondary School, Mahalaxmi -4, Imadol, Lalitpur, the total prevalence showed moderate stunting in children aged 42-53 months at 33.3% and normal height at 66.7%. Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) is used for emergency and screening purposes to assess the nutritional status of children. Originality/Value: This research provides insights for policy maker to guide for improvements on Day Snacks Program. Paper Type: Research Analysis

Molar-Incisor Hypomineralization Is Associated with the Prevalence of Thinness among Schoolchildren in Communities with Different Fluoride Levels in the Drinking Water.

To examine the association between molar-incisor hypomineralization (MIH) and the prevalence of thinness among Mexican schoolchildren in communities with different fluoride levels in the drinking water. A cross-sectional study on Mexican children (n = 488) selected from two communities presenting different concentrations of fluoride in the drinking water (1.0-1.40 ppm/F). The World Health Organization (WHO) growth standards were used to calculate BMI-for-age z-scores, with BMI z-score cutoff points of <-2.0, >+1.0, >+2.0 recommended for defining thinness, being overweight, and obesity. The presence and severity of MIH were evaluated using the European Academy of Paediatric Dentistry (EAPD) criteria. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to assess the association, adjusting for confounders. The proportion of children presenting thinness, being overweight, and obesity was 8.2%, 23.6%, and 28.7%, respectively, while 21.5% of the schoolchildren had MIH, classified, by severity, as 9.6% mild, 6.4% moderate, and 5.5% severe. Of those schoolchildren presenting thinness, 16.2% had MIH, and only 6.0% did not (p < 0.001). Finally, schoolchildren presenting thinness were more likely to present MIH (OR = 2.76 (CI 95% 1.33-5.73); p=0.006) than children with a normal BMI. The present study found a relationship between thinness and the presence of MIH in schoolchildren, indicating the need for strategies and interventions aimed at preventing and controlling micronutrient deficiencies in the child population.

Infection of Plasmodium falciparum and helminths among school children in communities in Southern and Northern Ghana

BackgroundInfections of Plasmodium species, Schistosoma species and soil-transmitted helminths (STH) inflict a significant burden on children mostly in deprived communities in Ghana. Despite the deployment of malaria vector control and the annual Mass Drug Administration by National Control Programmes, these infections still pose major public health concerns in Ghana. Some remote communities which are hard-to-reach are not covered by MDA campaigns which is a major challenge to meeting elimination targets. Adequate data is necessary for formulating policies and strengthening interventions to mitigate transmission. This study assessed the infection burden of Plasmodium, Schistosoma species and STH infections among school children in communities in Southern and Northern Ghana.MethodSchool children living in communities in Southern (Ada Foah, Pediatorkope, Tuanikope) and Northern (Kpalsogu) Ghana were enrolled in a cross-sectional study. A total of 493 (241 males and 252 females) school children aged (2–15 years) were enrolled in the study. Stool samples were collected to screen for Schistosoma mansoni and STH infections using the formol-ether concentration technique and urine samples were also collected to screen for S. haematobium using the routine urine examination method. Plasmodium parasitaemia was determined from thick and thin finger-prick blood samples.ResultsOverall, the prevalence of P. falciparum, S. mansoni, S. haematobium, Trichuris trichiura and hookworm infections were 17.2% (95%CI 12.8–19.7), 22.6% (95%CI 25.2–32.7), 1.6% (95%CI 0.89–5.2), 1.2% (95%CI 0.78–4.8) and 1.2% (95%CI 0.78–4.8) respectively. Plasmodium falciparum infection was generally widespread in all the study sites with Ada Foah recording the highest prevalence (35.3%) and Kpalsogu recording the lowest (5.8%). Schistosoma mansoni was present in only two Southern communities with Tuanikope recording the highest prevalence of 70.3% as against 51.5% recorded in Pediatorkope. A total of 4.5% (95% CI 2.82–10.8) of the children were co-infected with P. falciparum, Schistosoma species and STHs. This occurred only in the Southern communities; of which combination of P. falciparum and S. mansoni were predominant (1.4%).ConclusionA relatively low burden of parasites co-infection among children only in the Southern communities was detected. However, there were a high prevalence of single infections of P. falciparum and S. mansoni in those communities. Control measures for the helminths needs to be restarted in the island communities with a high burden of S. mansoni infections and that of Plasmodium needs to be scaled up in Ada Foah where P. falciparum infections were high.

Study of B40 Schoolchildren Lifestyles and Academic Performance using Association Rule Mining

B40 community school children experience many underprivileged lifestyles which impacted their academic performance. Through data trends and patterns, the education top management can observe the progress of academic performance and the lifestyle relationships of students in a school or nearby school. It can also help to identify the causes of progress or deterioration of the performance of B40 community students. Therefore, a data analytics framework is essential to help decision-makers to see and analyze the changing trends and patterns of academic progress in data and related lifestyles of B40 community students more effectively and accurately. The objective of this study is to design and develop association rules analysis to deduce the relevance of academic achievement and lifestyle among schoolchildren from the B40 family. The analysis framework is established in several stages that involve data collection and processing and transformation, then the design, application and evaluate of the association rules algorithms. The framework is expected to benefit students, teachers and Education Ministry. This study foresees whether educational programs and healthy lifestyle awareness can be designed specifically for the B40 children so as to improve their academic achievement as desired by the government.

Playing the Cards We Are Dealt: COVID‐19 and Nursing Homes

Playing the Cards We Are Dealt: COVID‐19 and Nursing Homes

Lifestyle and awareness of cholesterol blood levels among 29159 community school children in Italy

Background and aimLifestyle habits including indoor and outdoor activities among community school children, adherence to the Mediterranean diet and awareness about total cholesterol blood levels represent determinant factors in cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention. The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between adherence to the Mediterranean diet, total cholesterol blood levels, body composition and hours per day spent in in-house or outdoor among 29,159 Italian 6-14 years-old community school children (50% boys). The KidMed questionnaire, modified to handle missing information on olive oil consumption, was used to assess the adherence to the Mediterranean diet among participants. Methods and resultsAssociations between variables were tested according to 3 classes of the Mediterranean diet adherence score using analysis of variance. Participants with high adherence to Mediterranean diet were few (1%). Overall awareness of total cholesterol blood levels was low among children (4.5%), slightly higher among parents (26.2 and 24.1% in mothers and fathers, respectively). Among Mediterranean diet adherent children, BMI was significantly (p < 0.001) smaller than among the non-Mediterranean or intermediate adherent children as were the total hours spent per day watching television or playing with videogames (p < 0.001) whereas the hours/day in sport or outdoor activities were more (p < 0.001). These results were confirmed by multiple linear regression with KidMed scored 0 to 8 as dependent variable. ConclusionAlthough awareness of total cholesterol blood levels and adherence to the Mediterranean diet are rare among community school children, only among these a healthier lifestyle was practiced with a tendency to lower CVD risks. These results are important as the first sized experience of this type in Italy.

Enabling Aboriginal dental assistants to apply fluoride varnish for school children in communities with a high Aboriginal population in New South Wales, Australia: a study protocol for a feasibility study

BackgroundAustralian Aboriginal children experience high levels of dental caries (tooth decay) and are less likely to access preventive dental health services. High-strength fluoride varnish has been shown to reduce the incidence of dental caries and is commonly used in community-based preventive dental health service programs. In New South Wales, Australia, the application of fluoride varnish is restricted to dental and medical professionals. This is problematic in communities with a high Aboriginal population and limited access to oral health services, contributing to the increased risk of developing dental caries in Aboriginal children. Dental assistants are essential members of the oral health team; however, they do not have a defined scope of practice in Australia. Other countries have created formal scopes of practice for dental assistants to include the application of fluoride varnish. This protocol presents a pathway for qualified Aboriginal dental assistants to undertake additional training to legally apply fluoride varnish in New South Wales. The primary objective of this study will be to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of utilising Aboriginal dental assistants to apply fluoride varnish to Aboriginal children in a school setting at regular 3-month intervals.MethodsSix schools across New South Wales (NSW) that enrol at least 12% Aboriginal children will be invited to participate in the 12-month study. Aboriginal children aged 5–12 years enrolled in these schools will be enrolled in the study. Six Aboriginal dental assistants will undertake training to apply fluoride varnish. Fluoride varnish (Duraphat) will be applied at 3-month intervals by the dental assistants to the teeth using a small brush. An evaluation will be undertaken to determine the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of this innovative approach. This study protocol has been approved by the NSW Aboriginal Health and Medical Research Council and the NSW State Education Research Application Process.DiscussionA qualified Aboriginal dental assistant workforce in NSW (or Australia) legally approved to apply fluoride varnish may increase the sustainability and scalability of fluoride varnish programs and improve the oral health of Aboriginal children in Australia.Trial registrationISRCTN26746753.

VARIABILITY OF URINE PARAMETERS IN CHILDREN INFECTED WITH SCHISTOSOMA HAEMATOBIUM IN UKAWU COMMUNITY, ONICHA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, EBONYI STATE, NIGERIA.

Background:Schistosomiasis, a chronic, debilitating and neglected tropical and sub-tropical water-borne ailment, is highly endemic in Nigeria, especially among primary school children in rural communities. The study on the variability of urine parameters in children infected with Schistosomahaematobium in Ukawu community, Onicha Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, was undertaken.Materials and Methods:Urine samples were aseptically collected from 400 primary school children in the community and analysed using chemical reagent strips and sedimentation techniques.Results:The study revealed an overall prevalence of 27% as 108 pupils out of 400 were infected with S. haematobium in the area. Proteinuria, haematuria and leucocyturia were observed to occur in 67.0%, 79.0% and 74.9% respectively. Males had higher infections and higher occurrences of proteinuria, haematuria and leucocyturia (72.5%, 88.2% and 82.4% respectively). There was no significant difference with respect to sex (P<0.05). Children within ages 12-15 years had the highest prevalence of S. haematobium (35.5%) while those within the ages of 4-7 had the least prevalence (11.4%). The difference in the rate of infection between the different age groups was significant, statistically (P>0.05). Children within ages 12-15 had the highest occurrence of proteinuria, haematuria and leucocyturia while children within ages 4-7 had the least occurrence of the three urine parameters. All the pupils excreting above 40 egg/10ml of urine had proteinuria, haematuria and leucocyturia.Conclusion:The study revealed that the community studied is endemic with Schistosoma haematobium infections and the level of the urine parameters increased with the intensity of infection. Prompt case detection and treatment, good personal hygiene, eradication of snail hosts, public enlightenment and proper waste disposal are hereby recommended.

Assessment of intestinal helminths in community school children of Khana Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria

Two hundred and forty stool samples from three primary schools in Khana Local Government of Rivers State were examined to determine the prevalence of gastro-intestinal helminthes in pupils. The stool samples were examined using the direct wet preparation and formol ether concentration methods. The study showed that 126 females and 114 males were examined in three communities (Sii, Gwara and Gure). An overall prevalence of 70% was recorded; out of which 57 (23.7%), 53 (22.1%) and 58 (24.2%) were recorded for Sii, Gwara, and Gure respectively. Eighty three (34.5%) males and 85 (35.4%) females were infected as follows: 27 (11.2%), 30 (12.5%); 24 (10.0%), 29 (12.1%) and 32 (13.3%), 26 (10.8%) for Sii, Gwara, and Gure, respectively. Also 286 helminth worms were recovered as follows; 127 (44.4%), 114 (40%), 21 (7.3%), 20 (7%), 3 (1%) and 1 (0.3%) for Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichuira, Hookworms, Fasciola hepatica, Strongyloides stercolaris and Enterobius vermicularis respectively. There was no significant difference in pattern of infection between the sexes, and location of study (p-values &gt; 0.05). The study suggested that the high prevalence is an indication of prevailing unhygienic environment due to inadequate sanitary facilities and drinking water.Keywords: intestinal helminthes, school children, prevalence, sexes, infections

Nutritional status and dental fluorosis among schoolchildren in communities with different drinking water fluoride concentrations in a central region in Mexico

Poor water quality and under nutrition are important factors affecting the health of many communities in developing countries. The aims of this study were: i) to describe the fluoride water concentration and the hydrogeological conditions in a region of a state located in the central in Mexico ii) to measure the association between undernutrition and dental fluorosis in children living in communities with different drinking water fluoride concentrations in a state located in the central region of Mexico. MethodsField work was performed in the region to identify the prevailing groundwater flow characteristics and water wells were sampled to analyze water fluoride concentration. Children were selected from three communities that had different drinking water fluoride concentrations (i.e., 0.56, 0.70 and 1.60mg/l). Fluoridated salt was available in these communities. The Thylstrup–Fejerskov Index (TFI) was used to assess dental fluorosis. Categories four or higher of this index involve changes in the entire tooth surface (ITF≥4). The weight and height of the children were measured. The assessment of undernutrition was based on the World Health Organization criteria: children were classified as being at risk of low-height (Height-for-Age Z score<−1.0 SD) and having low-height (Height-for-Age Z score<−2.0 SD) for age and sex, the same cutoff points of the Z score were used to classify “risk of low-weight” and” low-weight children”. ResultsIn the region the mineralization of the water captured by the wells is the result of a reaction with volcanic materials. The water fluoride concentration in the region ranged from 0.2 to 1.6mg/l. A total of 734 schoolchildren participated in the study. The percentage of children in fluorosis categories (ITF≥4) was 15.9%, 21.1% of the children were at risk of low height-for-age, and 8.0% had low height-for-age. The percentage of children with fluorosis (ITF≥4) was 6.3%, 9.1% and 31.9% (p˂0.001) and low high-for-age was 2.9%, 2.5% and 8.4% (p˂0.001), for the communities with F concentrations of 0.56mg/l, 0.70mg/l and 1.6mg/l, respectively. The logistic regression model showed an association between dental fluorosis (TFI≥4) and low height-for-age (OR 2.09, p=0.022) after adjusting for sex, number of teeth erupted, source of drinking water, use of fluoridated toothpaste and tap water fluoride concentration in the community. ConclusionChildren with low height-for-age were more likely to have dental fluorosis in the TFI categories that affect the entire tooth surface. The results suggest that subpopulations with chronic undernutrition are more susceptible to dental fluorosis.

Prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems among primary school children in Karachi, Pakistan — multi informant survey

To determine emotional and behavioural problem among school going children in Pakistan. A cross sectional survey of school children of certain towns within Karachi metropolitan area, aged 5 to 11 years during 1(st) half of 2006. SDQ was filled out by parents and school teachers for the same children. Demographic data of parents, teachers and children were also collected using a separate performa. 7 private and 8 community schools agreed to participate. 1488 consent forms were sent to 700 parents of private school and 788 parents of community school children. A total of 675 parents agreed to participate in the study. The response rate was 45.3%. Assessment of children's mental health was conducted using Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Parents rated 34.4% of children as falling under the "abnormal category on SDQ, slightly higher estimates 35.8% were reported by the teacher. The findings suggest a striking difference between the informants' ratings as well as gender wise difference in prevalence of common child mental health problems. In the present study prevalence of child mental health problems was higher than reported in studies from other countries. There was also a gender difference in prevalence; boys had higher estimates of behavior/externalizing problems, whereas emotional problems were more common amongst females. There is a need for developing programs to train, sensitise and mobilize teachers and parents regarding child's psychological, emotional and behavioral problems.

Screening for emotional and behavioural problems amongst 5–11-year-old school children in Karachi, Pakistan

While a number of studies in the western countries have provided estimates of prevalence for child psychiatric morbidity and associated risk factors, relatively little is known about child psychiatric problems and risk factors in developing countries like Pakistan. A cross sectional survey of 5-11-year-old children attending main stream private and community schools in Karachi was conducted. Seven private and eight community schools agreed to participate. About 1488 consent forms were sent to 700 parents of private school and 788 parents of community school children. A total of 675 parents agreed to participate in the study. The response rate was 45.4%. Assessment of children's mental health was conducted using Strength and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) by parents based on cut-off provided by Goodman. About 47% children were rated as normal, 19% as borderline and 34% as abnormal by the parents. Ordinal regression was used to identify factors associated with parent's rating. The odds of female children of being normal was 1.5 times relative to male children, adjusting for school type and mother's education (ORadj = 1.5, 95% CI: 1.1-2.0). Children attending private schools were more likely to be normal as compared to community school children, adjusting for child's gender and mother's education (ORadj = 2.3, 95% CI: 1.3-4.0). In the present study, prevalence of child mental health problems was higher than reported in studies from other countries. Prevalence was higher amongst children attending community schools. Consistent with most studies, male children were at a higher risk than females. There is a need for developing programs to train, sensitise and mobilize teachers and parents regarding child's psychological, emotional and behavioural problems with special attention to community schools. Since the male child is at a greater risk we should be cognizant of this while evaluating children for psychopathology.

Promoção da saúde e cultura cidadã envolvendo uma abordagem oftalmológica em escolares na Colônia Antônio Aleixo (CAA), Manaus-AM: uma experiência no ensino médico

Objetivou-se promover a capacitação de alunos de Medicina da disciplina de Saúde Coletiva da Universidade Federal do Amazonas e comunidade para o desenvolvimento de uma cultura cidadã dentro do paradigma socioecológico, identificando-se os problemas oftalmológicos nos escolares da comunidade. Foram realizadas visitas domiciliares semanais e discutidas questões relevantes para a saúde dos moradores e problemas da localidade, na CAA, bairro periférico de Manaus. Escolares de 4 a 14 anos dessa comunidade foram triados na avaliação oftalmológica (AO), com encaminhamento dos casos ao especialista. Os problemas encontrados - desemprego, saneamento básico, desconhecimento das leis e baixo grau de escolaridade - motivaram reuniões entre moradores, acadêmicos e profissionais de setores relacionados. De 133 crianças avaliadas na AO, uma precisou de tratamento. Constatou-se que o acadêmico de Medicina inserido na realidade que o cerca é capaz de se tornar um profissional mais ativo na sociedade na luta por uma localidade saudável/cidade saudável, capacitando a comunidade para suas lutas sociais em busca de melhor qualidade de vida e exercício pleno da cidadania. A prevalência de problemas oftalmológicos nos escolares da comunidade foi inferior à observada na literatura.

Differences in lung function among school children in communities in Israel.

Differences in lung functions of school-age children who lived near two electrical power plants in the Ashkelon district of Israel were studied. Lung-function tests were performed, and the American Thoracic Society questionnaire was administered in three study periods during the following years: (1) 1990, (2) 1994, and (3) 1997. Measurements of air pollutants (i.e., sulfur dioxide, nitric oxides, ozone) were also taken during the aforementioned study periods. Statistical analysis included an estimation of a series of fixed-effects regression models. A total of 2,455, 1,613, and 4,346 observations were included in the analyses for study years 1990, 1994, and 1997, respectively. The authors controlled for age, sex, height, weight, parents' education and smoking status, and being born out of Israel, and, consequently, substantial differences in lung function across the different communities and study periods were demonstrated in the study area. No robust association with air pollution was demonstrated. The cause of these differences in the respiratory health of children remains unknown.

Ankle clonus and thiocyanate, linamarin, and inorganic sulphate excretion in school children in communities with Konzo, Mozambique.

We examined 397 school children for ankle clonus in five communities in three districts affected by konzo, spastic paraparesis associated with cassava consumption. From a subsample of 131 children, we analysed urine specimens for urinary thiocyanate, linamarin, and inorganic sulphate. The proportion of children with clonus varied between sites, ranging from 4 to 22 per cent. Geometric mean thiocyanate, linamarin, and inorganic sulphate concentrations were 163 and 60 mumol/l and 4.4 mmol/l, respectively. Children with ankle clonus had higher urinary thiocyanate concentrations. We recommend prevention to reduce cyanide exposure and further monitoring of cyanide exposure and neurological damage in these communities.

Benefits and barriers for volunteer leaders of a parent training program

Between 1989 and 1992, large numbers of volunteers were trained to lead parenting skills workshops tor parents of elementary and middle school children in communities in Oregon. The authors surveyed the volunteer-leaders to examine the latter's perceptions of the benefits of and barriers to leading the workshops and how those factors related to their intentions to lead future groups. Surveys were mailed to 718 trained group leaders, and 380 instruments (52.9%) were returned. Although the numbers of trained group leaders increased each year, the percentage of trained individuals who had conducted workshops in the 12 months before the survey declined from 82% in 1989 to 42% in 1992. Stepwise regression analysis indicated that factors related to the personal cost to the group leader (eg, competing interests, burnout, fatigue) accounted for 26.1% of the variance of barrier scores, whereas perceived benefits accounted for only 6.8% of the variance. The implications of these results as they relate to community support and encouragement of volunteers are discussed.

A disappearing urban/rural blood pressure difference in Nigerian children: an evaluation of possible determining factors

Urban Nigerian school children are reported to have a higher systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure than rural community school children until the age of 11-12 years when this difference tends to disappear. We evaluated 874 urban day-school children and 674 rural community school children aged 5-16 (mean 11.9) years in south-eastern Nigeria to confirm this changing pattern, and to assess the contributions of some known factors to the differences as well as the changing pattern. This study confirmed the changing pattern of urban/rural blood pressure of school children. Differences in weight, height and Body Mass Index (BMI), though important, appeared insufficient to explain this pressure difference and the changing pattern. Urban children aged 12-14 years were found to excrete more sodium and (unexpectedly) more potassium in their 24-h urine samples. The observed urban/rural blood pressure difference appears to be sustained by a multiplicity of factors, including differences in weight, BMI, height, electrolytes (especially sodium) consumption, and increased exposure to Western-type education.

CONSERVATION IN COMMUNITY SCHOOL CHILDREN FROM THE MADANG, SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS, AND NORTH SOLOMONS PROVINCES OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Three hundred and eight primary level boys and girls from the Madang, North Solomons, and Southern Highlands Provinces of Papua New Guinea were tested for conservation of number, length, quantity, and area. School grade, and age were related to performance in some cases, though sex had little effect. There were significant differences between the language‐culture groups tested on three of the four conservation tasks. Since there was little consistency of performance over the four tasks, it was suggested that explanations of the variations of cognitive performance found within Papua New Guinea, and between Papua New Guinean groups and others may need to give attention to specific characteristics of each group's environment.

Conservation in Community School Children from the Milne Bay and Morobe Provinces of Papua New Guinea

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