School Break Times Research Articles

Active recess: School break time as a setting for physical activity promotion in European primary schools

Objective: This study investigated active recess as an innovative approach to improving physical activity levels in European primary schools, addressing the need to counteract sedentary behaviour and enhance health in students. Method and Design: Using rapid reviewing, the article summarises empirical evidence from a variety of sources, including cross-sectional and intervention studies. Different approaches are investigated to determine their impact on physical activity during recess. Results: Different playground settings have distinct effects on physical activity, with grassland and designated zones in particular promoting moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Gender inequalities in physical activity patterns suggest the need for gender-sensitive interventions. Playground marking and scheduled activities temporarily increase physical activity, whereas recess of more than 60 minutes dramatically enhances physically active participation. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the impact of active recess in facilitating children to engage in higher levels of physical activity. The findings have implications for school health policy decisions.

Primary School Breaktime and Girl’s Physical Activity: 3 Case Studies

Primary School Breaktime and Girl’s Physical Activity: 3 Case Studies

Accuracy of Reporting Food Intakes among Primary School Children Aged 7–9 Years

BackgroundAccurate measurement of dietary intake throughout childhood is important to monitor children’s growth and development and for their long-term health. However, measuring dietary intake in children is challenging because of misreporting, difficulties in establishing portion size, and heavy reliance on proxy reporters. ObjectivesThis study aimed to determine the accuracy of self-reported food intake by primary school children aged 7–9 y. MethodsA total of 105 children (51% boys), aged 8.0 ± 0.8 y, were recruited from three primary schools in Selangor, Malaysia. Individual meal intakes during a school break time were determined using a food photography method as the reference method. The children were then interviewed the following day to assess their recall of their meal intakes the previous day. ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to determine mean differences in the accuracy of reporting food items and amount by age and weight status, respectively. ResultsOn average, the children achieved 85.8% match rate, 14.2% omission rate, and 3.2% intrusion rate for accuracy in reporting food items. The children also achieved 85.9% correspondence rate and 6.8% inflation ratio for accuracy in reporting food amounts. Children living with obesity had notably higher intrusion rates compared with normal weight children (10.6% vs. 1.9%) (P < 0.05). Children aged >9 y had notably higher correspondence rates, compared with children aged 7 y (93.3% vs. 78.8%) (P < 0.05). ConclusionsThe low omission and intrusion rates and the high correspondence rate indicate that primary school children aged 7–9 y are capable of self-reporting food intake accurately for a lunch meal without proxy assistance. However, to confirm children’s abilities to report their daily food intakes, further studies should be conducted to assess the accuracy of children in reporting their food intakes for more than one meal in a day.

Making Space: Exploring the “Thirdspace” of Breaktime in Middle School

Although scholars are attuned to the particular transitional dilemmas faced by middle school students, inquiry into middle school breaktimes is largely limited to research on bullying and peer victimization. This study interrogates the geography of middle school breaktime to expand understanding of student safety and recognize the ways that the state’s intervention in school spaces creates particular challenges for young learners. By investigating breaktimes at three middle schools and employing a critical geography lens in data coding and analysis, we demonstrate how the organization of space shapes student experiences. Findings suggest that scholars should consider breaktime as a “thirdspace” within the middle school day—one that offers vast potential for positive student development, but is marginalized due to its status as “non-academic” time. Findings reveal that school leaders and staff may better support students by addressing the ways that breaktimes are differently navigated by students along ethnic, socioeconomic, age, and gender lines.

A socio-ecological examination of the primary school playground: Primary school pupil and staff perceived barriers and facilitators to a physically active playground during break and lunch-times.

Using Brofenbrenner's socio-ecological model as a conceptual framework, the objective of this study was to determine playground users (primary school staff and pupils) perceptions of the barriers and facilitators to a physically active school playground at an intra-personal (individual), inter-personal (social), environmental and policy level. Results from a series of qualitative interactions with children (n = 65) from years five and six (9 to 11 years old), and structured interviews with adult teachers (n = 11) revealed key differences in the child and adult perceptions of the playground and the purpose of break-times. A number of inter-related environmental boundaries and school policies were identified as restrictive to children's explorations and activity levels during 'free play' periods, which centred on resource availability, accessibility and health and safety. Further, traditional playground hierarchies act to promote and prevent physical activity engagement for different groups (e.g. gender and age). Finally, differences between the adult and child perception of the primary school playground were observed. Playground physical activity, during break-times appears to be affected by a number of variables at each level of the socio-ecological model. This study provides an opportunity for primary schools to reflect on primary school playground strategies and practices that are implemented at each level of the socio-ecological model to encourage a more effective use of the playground during school break-times.

Changes in Physical Activity Behaviour and Psychosocial Correlates Unique to the Transition from Primary to Secondary Schooling in Adolescent Females: A Longitudinal Cohort Study.

Few studies have investigated physical activity changes over the transition from primary to secondary school. This study assessed change in physical activity and the psychosocial correlates across 12 months in two cohorts of adolescent girls, who were either in primary school in year 1, moving to secondary school in year 2 (Transition cohort) or an older cohort (Secondary cohort) who remained in early secondary school. Female adolescents (n = 191; 38% response rate) in South Australia self-reported physical activity and psychosocial correlates of physical activity. Changes between baseline and 12-month follow-up were assessed using paired t-tests. Multiple regression modelling identified psychosocial predictors of physical activity change. Physical activity declined in the transition but not the secondary cohort. The decline was most pronounced during school break times. Independent predictors of physical activity change were: change in enjoyment in the transition cohort; and changes in enjoyment, perceived outcomes, and friend encouragement in the secondary cohort. Transitioning from primary to secondary school is a critical period during which physical activity typically declines, particularly among females. Effective physical activity promotion in this vulnerable group will depend on a deeper understanding of the sociocultural, curricular and environmental influences on physical activity that are unique to each school context.

Utilising active play in schools to improve physical activity and fundamental movement skills in Scottish children

It is widely accepted that children in Scotland, as in other high-income countries, are not engaging in sufficient moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA), the consequences of which can be adverse for health and wellbeing. In this paper, it is contended that active play (a form of gross motor or total body movement in which children exert energy in a freely chosen, fun, and unstructured manner) has potential to redress this deficit in MVPA. This paper reflects on lessons learned from active play interventions in Scottish schools, providing recommendations for schools on how to encourage more active play. It is argued that promoting active play during school break times and in the after-school period, and participating in active play interventions are promising ways of increasing children’s MVPA and improving their fundamental movement skills.

Physical Activity Trends in Separate Contexts Among South Australian Older Children (10-12Y) and Early Adolescents (13-15Y) From 1985 to 2013.

To assess trends in South Australian children's physical activity between 1985 and 2003 and 2013 in the contexts of school active transport, organized sport, physical education, and school break times. The 1985 Australian Health and Fitness Survey was administered in South Australian schools in 2004 (8 schools) and 2013 (9 schools) and was demographically matched to the 10 South Australian schools in the Australian Health and Fitness Survey. Ordinal logistic modeling was used to identify trends, stratified by older children (10-12y) and early adolescent (13-15y) subgroups. School active transport generally declined for males and older female children (19 and 20 percentage points per decade, respectively), whereas early adolescent females increased in walking to school (11 percentage points per decade). School sport participation declined for early adolescents, and club sport participation declined in early adolescent females (23 percentage points per decade). Moderate to vigorous physical activity participation during school break times (particularly lunchtime) generally declined (16-26 percentage points per decade). Observed changes in most contexts occurred between 2004 and 2013. There was evidence of context-specific declines in children's physical activity participation over this time span. Early adolescent females were the subgroup of most concern, experiencing declines in most contexts.

Healthy for Life Pilot Study: A Multicomponent School and Home Based Physical Activity Intervention for Disadvantaged Children.

The study aimed to develop and evaluate a multicomponent school and home based physical activity (PA) intervention in children in grades 3–7 (aged 8–13 years) and determine the psychological variables that influence PA; 10 × 1 h school-based training sessions, a home-based activity program and 4 × 1 h lifestyle workshops for parents. PA was assessed at an intervention and nearby control school using accelerometers and self-report at 3-time points: baseline, post intervention and 10-week follow-up. Self-efficacy, self-management strategies, enjoyment, perceived barriers to PA, outcome-expectancy and social support were evaluated. The study showed 73% of the children with complete data sets at the intervention school (n = 27) did not increase device measured moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) in the after-school period (3 p.m. to 6 p.m.) or over the whole day or during school break time immediately following the intervention or at follow-up, as compared to 70% of children with complete data sets at the control school (n = 35; p > 0.05 for all). Overall, 59% of boys attained more than double the recommended 120 min of MVPA each day compared to 42% of girls (p = 0.013). At the baseline, children’s self-reported PA in the intervention school positively correlated with: outcome expectancy (R = 0.240, p = 0.015), enjoyment (R = 0.339, p < 0.001), self-efficacy (R = 0.399, p < 0.001), self-management (R = 0.617, p < 0.001), social support at home (R = 0.406, p < 0.001), and social support at school (R = 0.407, p < 0.001). Similar relationships were observed after the intervention and at follow-up. Focus groups with the children, parents and interviews with teachers identified areas for improvement of the intervention. In conclusion, while the multifaceted approach to improve PA was ineffective over the time span of the study, important predictors of PA in this sample of disadvantaged children were identified.

Effects of a school-based physical activity program on retinal microcirculation and cognitive function in adolescents

ObjectivesTo investigate the effect of combined aerobic and coordinative exercise on retinal microcirculation and its association with changes in cognitive performance in healthy adolescents. DesignUsing cluster-randomization (on class-level), 36 participants were allocated to an exercise group (EX) performing a 20-min aerobic and coordinative exercise session on each school day over a period of 8 weeks or a control group, which was encouraged to have social interactions (CON). MethodPrior to and following the intervention period, central retinal arteriolar (CRAE) and venular diameters (CRVE) were assessed by use of a static vessel analyzer. Additionally, a computer-based version of the Stroop Color-Word task was administered to assess inhibitory control. ResultsThe statistical analysis revealed that EX compared to CON showed higher CRAE at post-test, when pre-test values were accounted for, F(1,32)=4.92, p=0.036, η2=0.130. In contrast, no such effect was reported for CRVE. With regard to cognitive performance, a greater reduction of reaction time on the Stroop task was observed in EX relative to CON, F(1,30)=8.58, p=0.006, η2=0.222. The increase in CRAE was significantly correlated with a decrease of reaction time on trials demanding inhibitory control, even after adjusting for covariates, r(31)=−0.438, p=0.011. ConclusionsA structured exercise program leads to a widening of retinal arteriolar diameters, which is associated with improvements in inhibitory control. Consequently, daily exercise sessions performed during the school break-time can be recommended for promoting both cardiovascular and cognitive health in adolescents.

Evaluation of a Walking-Track Intervention to Increase Children's Physical Activity during Primary School Break Times.

Despite the known benefits of engaging in daily moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), only 22% of children in England are meeting the recommended guidelines. School break times have been advocated as a key part of children’s daily routines in which their MVPA can be increased. The main aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of installing a walking-track on children’s MVPA during school break times. A mixed method design was employed which allowed for the quantitative measurement of children’s PA at three time points (baseline, mid-intervention (1–5 weeks) and follow-up (6–9 weeks)), using pedometers (n = 81, 5–9 years) and systematic observation (n = 23, 7–9 years). A semi-structured interview (n = 1) was also conducted at 10 weeks’ follow-up. The installation of the walking-track was grounded in a unique set of theoretical constructs to aid the behaviour change of the teachers. Short term positive increases in girls’ and boys’ MVPA and longer term increases in boys’ vigorous PA (VPA) were found. Qualitative data highlighted that boys dominated the walking-track and the inconsistent behaviour of school staff negatively impacted upon children’s MVPA. A set of principles to guide the installment of walking-tracks in school playgrounds are recommended.

Playground activities and gender variation in objectively measured physical activity intensity in Australian primary school children: a repeated measures study

BackgroundRecent studies have sought to address the limited time for physical activity by focusing on increasing physical activity intensity among students during non-curricula periods and specifically school break times. We objectively measured the intensity of student physical activity (PA) during recess and lunch breaks at primary schools in the Western Sydney region of New South Wales (NSW), Australia using a 12-month repeated measures observation design study.MethodsSystematic direct observation of recess and lunch breaks over a ten-week period in 2014 and 2015. 120 recess and lunch breaks across twenty schools (2014) with 839 periodic observations and across 15 schools with 587 periodic observations in 2015. Both observation periods were conducted over 10-weeks in Term 4 (September – December).ResultsThe mean proportion of vigorous physical activity reported as a percentage (%VPA) across both time points was 16.6% (SD = 23.4). 36.8% (SD = 26.0) of time was spent walking and the remaining time (46.6%; SD = 30.4) was spent in sedentary activities. There was a significant decline in %VPA and increase in sedentary activity (p < 0.01) between the two time periods of measurement. In 2014, boys spent twice as much time in %VPA than girls during breaks in the school day and in 2015 this increased to nearly three times as much time in %VPA. %VPA also varied on the type of surface PA took place and the types of activities the children were allowed to undertake during breaks.ConclusionsRecess and lunch breaks potentially offer an opportunity for children to participate in unstructured PA during the school day. Substantial variations in the %VPA during these periods exist. Addressing playground gender participation disparities and space usability/accessibility may be a necessary first step in promoting higher PA intensities during breaks.

The effects of a school-based exercise program on neurophysiological indices of working memory operations in adolescents

ObjectivesTo examine the effects of a structured exercise program implemented during school break-time on working memory maintenance and neurophysiological indices of task preparation processes in adolescents. DesignUsing class-wise random allocation, participants from four classes were divided into an exercise (n=20) and a wait-list control group (n=16). Over a period of eight weeks, the exercise group engaged in 20min of combined aerobic and coordinative exercise on each school day. MethodsPrior to and after the intervention period, participants performed a computer-based Sternberg task for the assessment of working memory performance. Simultaneously, the contingent negative variation (CNV) of event-related potentials was measured. ResultsThe exercise group demonstrated a larger decrease in reaction time from pre- to post-test relative to the control group, F(1, 31)=13.5, p<0.001. No changes were found for accuracy on the Sternberg task across groups. Using cluster-based permutation testing, the analysis of event-related potentials revealed a significant increase of the initial CNV from pre- to post-test in the exercise group, cluster value=−2376.2, p=0.006, which was most pronounced for the fronto-central region, with no such effect observed for the control group. ConclusionsDaily engagement in a short combined aerobic and coordinative exercise program following the school lunch time break elicits benefits for working memory in adolescents. These changes are accompanied by improvements of task preparation processes, which allow the selection of a more appropriate cognitive control strategy.

Chronic effects of exercise implemented during school-break time on neurophysiological indices of inhibitory control in adolescents

Abstract Objection The present study investigated the effects of an exercise intervention, which was implemented during school-break time, on the P300 component of event-related potentials and inhibitory control. Methods Adolescents aged 12–15 years were allocated to an exercise and control group. The exercise group performed 20 min of aerobic and coordinative exercise per school day over a period of 8 weeks. Before and after the intervention, stimulus-locked event-related potentials were recorded during a Stroop task using electroencephalography. Cluster-based permutation testing revealed a greater increase of the P300 amplitude in the exercise compared to the control group, most pronounced for the parieto-occipital region. Additionally, increases in P300 amplitude were associated with decreases in incompatible reaction time on the Stroop task. Conclusion An exercise program implemented during school-break time enhances adolescents' inhibitory control. This benefit seems to be due to an improved allocation of attentional resources towards the cognitive task.

Using functional data analysis to understand daily activity levels and patterns in primary school-aged children: Cross-sectional analysis of a UK-wide study.

BackgroundTemporal characterisation of physical activity in children is required for effective strategies to increase physical activity (PA). Evidence regarding determinants of physical activity in childhood and their time-dependent patterns remain inconclusive. We used functional data analysis (FDA) to model temporal profiles of daily activity, measured objectively using accelerometers, to identify diurnal and seasonal PA patterns in a nationally representative sample of primary school-aged UK children. We hypothesised that PA levels would be lower in girls than boys at play times and after school, higher in children participating in social forms of exercise (such as sport or play), and lower among those not walking to school.MethodsChildren participating in the UK-wide Millennium Cohort Study wore an Actigraph GT1M accelerometer for seven consecutive days during waking hours. We modelled 6,497 daily PA profiles from singleton children (3,176 boys; mean age: 7.5 years) by means of splines, and used functional analysis of variance to examine the cross-sectional relation of time and place of measurement, demographic and behavioural characteristics to smoothed PA profiles.ResultsDiurnal and time-specific patterns of activity showed significant variation by sex, ethnicity, UK country and season of measurement; girls were markedly less active than boys during school break times than boys, and children of Indian ethnicity were significantly less active during school hours (9:30–12:00). Social activities such as sport clubs, playing with friends were associated with higher level of PA in afternoon (15:00–17:30) and early evenings (17:30–19:30). Lower PA levels between 8:30–9:30 and 17:30–19:30 were associated with mode of travel to and from school, and number of cars in regular use in the household.ConclusionDiminished PA in primary school aged children is temporally patterned and related to modifiable behavioural factors. FDA can be used to inform and evaluate public health policies to promote childhood PA.

The demographic influence on physical activity trends among South Australian children and adolescents

Introduction: It is concerning only 19% of Australian youth participate in the required 60 min of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). The aim of this study was to report trends in children's physical activity participation over three decades within defined physical activity (PA) contexts, with a particular focus on the demographic influence on PA temporal trends. Data at three time points were used to assess trends within the contexts of school active transport, organised sport, physical education (PE) and school break times.

Broadening rules and aligning actions: Children's negotiation while playing hide-and-seek during break time

This article explores the emergence of the children's rule negotiation, while they play hide-and-seek during school break times, and how it transforms the playing. Break times refer to the free-time interspaces between organized scheduled lessons during the school day and are settings among others in children's everyday life where they are able to play and explore. Usually, in Swedish primary schools, there is a morning break, lunch break, and shorter pauses between lessons. Usually children are allowed to spend the break times in a schoolyard. The article provides a micro-level insights of a group of 10 and 11 years old children's negotiation process regarding rules to be followed while playing hide-and-seek, in Sweden the game is called “the jar”. Observational data was produced during 11 break periods and was analysed through the lens of cultural historical activity theory (Leontiev, 1978; Vygotsky, 1978). The analysis indicates that the children's negotiation process is a collective embedding of agency. Negotiation concerns children broadening the collective interpretation of rules and making micro-adjustments in their courses of action in order to align them. The negotiation of rules is a collectividual (Stetsenko, 2013) enterprise of producing and using negotiagency in changing the circumstances in play.

An Assessment of Adolescent Eating Habits in Public Schools of Chak Shahzad, Islamabad

Eating patterns influence the nutritional status, health, learning process and academic performance of the school children. This study was conducted to explore the food availability at school canteens and food intake by adolescents in break period. A cross sectional study was conducted on 290 adolescents (145 were girls and 145 boys) of 6^th, 7^th and 8^th grade from public schools of Chak Shahzad, Islamabad. Pre-structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Chi square / fisher exact test was done by using SPSS to check the association. The mean age of adolescents was 12.6 ± 1.33 years. They were reported normal, underweight, overweight and obese as 176 (60.7%), 79 (27.2%), 27 (9.3%) and 9 (2.8%) respectively. Nutritional status was significantly related with gender, age and grade of adolescents with p-value <0.05. Response showed that 199 (68.6%) adolescents prefer canteen food during break time, and 66 (22.8%) give preference to homemade lunch. Few of them 25 (8.6%) take fruits in school break time. About (24.8%) took drink with lunch which were juices 30 (10.3%), milk/milk shake 14 (5.9%), carbonated drinks 6 (2.1%), and tea/coffee 13 (4.5%). Consumption of carbohydrates, protein, fruits, vegetables, and dairy products was found as 64 (22.1%), 26 (0.9%), 32 (11%), 4 (1.4%) and 1 (0.3%) respectively in adolescents who brought their lunch from home. Around 49% of students were not satisfied with food provided on their school canteens. Availability of food items on school canteens and overall eating pattern of adolescents is not satisfactory. There is a need of school canteen guidelines/policy and nutritional education to canteen staff and pupils.

PACE: A group randomised controlled trial to increase children's break-time playground physical activity.

To assess the effect of a school playground intervention on the physical activity levels of primary/elementary aged children. Two-arm parallel group randomized controlled trial. In 2011, children aged 4-13 years from thirteen primary/elementary schools (in Illawarra, New South Wales, Australia) were invited to participate in the study. School recruitment was based on existing policies, equipment and willingness to participate. Participating schools were randomly allocated to the intervention or control using the 'hat and draw' method. The intervention was delivered over four months. Intervention schools introduced policy changes and portable equipment to break-time after baseline measures were collected. The primary outcome was the proportion of break-time spent in Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) assessed by the System for Observing Playground Activity in Youth (SOPLAY). The analysis involved linear mixed models adjusting for the clustering effect of schools. The study is registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12614001128684). Four schools (two intervention and two control) met the inclusion criteria (1582 children: 790 males; 267 controls, total of 792 females; 248 controls). Students from the intervention schools had a greater increase at follow-up in the proportion of break-time in MVPA; (adjusted difference=12.5 percentage points, 95% CI [-13.0%, 38.0%]; P=0.17; r=0.6) compared to the controls. MVPA at recess significantly increased (adjusted difference=18.0 percentage points, 95% CI [6.9%, 29.1%]; P=0.02; effect size=0.7). There were no significant increases in MVPA when examining overall break times. Results were greater for girls compared to boys. Making environmental and policy changes are promising strategies for promoting health-enhancing physical activity during school break-time.

Children’s physical activity levels during primary school break times

The overall aim of this study was to assess the diversity of primary school children’s physical activity (PA) during outdoor recess. The study was grounded in a mixed method approach, assisting in the identification of multifaceted predictors of children’s PA, including insights to social behaviours during break time. Data were obtained from children aged 7–10 years across five primary schools in the West Midlands, United Kingdom. Data were collected during the English winter months from November 2013 to January 2014 and involved two distinct phases. In the quantitative phase ( n = 82), children’s PA levels and social play behaviours were directly observed at break time using the system for observing children’s activity and relationships during play (SOCARP).The SOCARP instrument coded 820 minutes of school break time across the categories of: physical activity; group size; activity type and social play behaviours. In the qualitative phase ( n = 80), children participated in group interviews in relation to their perceptions and experiences of the playground environment. Findings indicated boys and girls have different predictors of their PA levels. Participating in sports activities and engaging in large groups were positive predictors of boys’ moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA), whereas pro-social interactions and small/medium groups were positive predictors of girls’ MVPA. The qualitative findings highlighted several themes including: boys and sport; power hierarchies; girls’ walk and talk; and imaginary play. Drawing from the current findings, it is suggested that interventions should focus on the social environment of break times, facilitating walk and talk routes for girls and sporting opportunities for boys.