School-based Victimization Research Articles

School-Based Victimization Prevention Education Programs for Children and Youth With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: A Scoping Review.

Youth with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) are at significantly higher risk of experiencing multiple types of interpersonal victimization across their lifespan compared to their peers without IDD. Despite the extensive literature on efficacy of prevention education programs for children without IDD, very little is known about comparable programs for children with IDD. In this scoping review, we synthesized the literature on existing programs for children with IDD. We identified thirteen programs which we critically assessed against established best practice criteria for prevention and special education and evaluation. The current literature on prevention education programs for children with IDD exhibits significant limitations, such as weak research designs and poor measurement of outcomes.

Being out in high school: Positive implications for well-being in three U.S. cohorts of sexual minority adults.

For lesbian, gay, bisexual, or queer (i.e., sexual minority [SM]) youth, coming out is an important developmental milestone and is typically associated with positive well-being. However, coming out in high school may entail a higher risk of school-based victimization. Due to the greater risk of homophobic bullying, the implications of being out in adolescence and well-being later in adulthood remain unclear. Using data from a national probability survey (Generations Study) of three distinct age cohorts of SM adults (N = 1,474) in the United States, this study (a) examined how being out at school in adolescence affects general well-being in adulthood and (b) SM-specific well-being in adulthood, and (c) examined if these associations differ by cohort. Results from multivariate regression analyses demonstrated that being out in adolescence was not significantly associated with general well-being, but was significantly associated with SM-specific well-being: higher rates of identity centrality and community connectedness, and lower rates of internalized homophobia. There were no cohort differences in the associations between outness in high school, general well-being, and SM well-being. The findings from this national probability sample of SM adults provide novel insight into implications of being out across the life course, including the positive implications of being out at school in adolescence for SM-specific well-being in adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

School-based victimization in children and adolescents presenting for cognitive behavioural treatment of anxiety disorders.

Peer victimization and anxiety frequently co-occur and result in adverse outcomes in youth. Cognitive behavioural treatment is effective for anxiety and may also decrease children's vulnerability to victimization. This study aims to examine peer victimization in youth who have presented to clinical services seeking treatment for anxiety. Following a retrospective review of clinical research data collected within a specialized service, peer victimization was examined in 261 children and adolescents (55.6% male, mean age 10.6 years, SD = 2.83, range 6-17 years) with a diagnosed anxiety disorder who presented for cognitive behavioural treatment. Youth and their parents completed assessments of victimization, friendships, anxiety symptoms, and externalizing problems. High levels of victimization in this sample were reported. Children's positive perceptions of their friendships were related to lower risk of relational victimization, while conduct problems were related to an increased risk of verbal and physical victimization. A subsample of these participants (n = 112, 57.1% male, mean age 10.9 years, SD = 2.89, range 6-17 years) had completed group-based cognitive behavioural treatment for their anxiety disorder. Treatment was associated with reductions in both self-reported anxiety and victimization. Results confirm the role of friendships and externalizing symptoms as factors associated with increased risk of victimization in youth with an anxiety disorder in a treatment-seeking sample. Treatment for anxiety, whether in a clinic or school setting, may provide one pathway to care for young people who are victimized, as well as playing a role in preventing or reducing victimization.

At-School Victimization and Alcohol Use Among Minoritized U.S. Youth, 2009–2017

Sexual minority and/or racial/ethnic minority youth may use alcohol at school as a form of minority stress-based coping. Polyvictimization is particularly prevalent among sexual minority and/or racial/ethnic minority youth and may be a useful proxy measure for minority stressors. Data from local administrations of the Youth Risk Behavior Survey were pooled across 42 jurisdiction years (biennially, 2009-2017) and analyzed in 2022, resulting in a sample of 118,052 U.S. youth. The prevalence of alcohol use at school was examined by sexual identity, race/ethnicity, and their intersections, stratified by sex. Multivariable logistic regression models were built to examine the disparities in alcohol use at school and the impact of school-based polyvictimization. At the intersections of race/ethnicity and sexual identity, 25 of 30 sexual minority and/or racial/ethnic minority subpopulations had greater odds of alcohol use at school than their White heterosexual same-sex peers. Hispanic/Latinx not-sure males (AOR=9.15; 95% CI=5.97, 14.03) and Hispanic/Latinx lesbian females (AOR=11.24; 95% CI=6.40, 19.77) were most likely to report alcohol use at school. After adjusting for polyvictimization, the magnitude of association was attenuated for most sexual minority and/or racial/ethnic minority subpopulations; however, all but 2 significant associations remained. Sexual minority and/or racial/ethnic minority youth were more likely than White heterosexual peers to use alcohol at school, with the greatest odds among multiply marginalized and polyvictimized youth. Interventions should consider addressing more than school-based victimization alone because disparities persisted, although at a lower magnitude, after accounting for polyvictimization. Future longitudinal studies are warranted to further explore the associations between multiply marginalized identities, school-based polyvictimization, and alcohol use at school.

Youth gun carrying and household firearm ownership in 22 US states.

Youth gun carrying is associated with a range of adverse outcomes, including increased risks for homicide, suicide, school disciplinary problems, and criminal legal involvement. In this study we examined the association between state-level household firearm ownership rates and the odds of past-year gun carrying among high-school-aged youth. Using survey-weighted multivariable logistic regression models, results showed that each 1% point increase in state-level gun ownership was associated with a 2.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] = [1.1%, 4.2%], p = 0.001) increased odds of youth gun carrying, controlling for histories of school-based victimization, physical fighting, and substance use. Among a subset of weapon-carrying youth, state-level firearm availability was a significant factor in determining whether the weapon carried was a gun or a less lethal (i.e., nonfirearm) weapon (odds ratio = 1.021, 95% CI = [1.005, 1.038], p = 0.01). These findings show that firearm availability confers additional risk for youth gun carrying beyond the psychosocial risks emphasized in prior research and efforts to restrict youth access to firearms might be particularly important, especially in communities with high levels of household gun ownership.

Sexual harassment in secondary school: Prevalence and ambiguities. A mixed methods study in Scottish schools.

Adolescence is characterized by identity formation, exploration and initiation of intimate relationships. Much of this occurs at school, making schools key sites of sexual harassment. Schools often lack awareness and understanding of the issue, and UK research on the topic is scarce. We explored prevalence and perceptions of sexual harassment in a school-based mixed-methods study of 13-17 year-old Scottish adolescents. A student survey (N = 638) assessed past 3-months school-based victimization and perpetration prevalence via 17 behavioral items based on the most commonly used school-based sexual harassment measure ('Hostile Hallways'). Eighteen focus groups (N = 119 students) explored which of 10 behaviors were perceived as harassing/unacceptable and why. Two-thirds reported any victimization: 64.7% 'visual/verbal' (e.g. sexual jokes) and 34.3% 'contact/personally-invasive' behaviors (e.g. sexual touching; most of whom also reported experiencing visual/verbal types) in the past 3-months. Data suggested a gateway effect, such that contact/personally-invasive behaviors are more likely to be reported by those also reporting more common visual/verbal behaviors. Some survey participants reported being unsure about whether they had experienced certain behaviors; and in focus groups, participants expressed uncertainty regarding the acceptability of most behaviors. Ambiguities centered on behavioral context and enactment including: degree of pressure, persistence and physicality; degree of familiarity between the instigator-recipient; and perception of the instigator's intent. In attempting to resolve ambiguities, students applied normative schemas underpinned by rights (to dignity, respect and equality) and 'knowingness', usually engendered by friendship. Our study confirms school-based sexual harassment is common but also finds significant nuance in the ways in which students distinguish between acceptable and harassing. School-based strategies to tackle sexual harassment must engage with this complexity.

Substance use among transgender youth: associations with school-based victimization and school protective factors

This paper examines the extent to which transgender students’ experiences with school-based victimization and school protective factors contribute to or reduce substance use. We conducted secondary analyses of school-based victimization, school protective factors, and substance use of a subsample of transgender students from the 2013–2015 California Healthy Kids Survey. Results indicate that among transgender students, school-based victimization is a risk factor for substance use. School protective factors, including school connectedness and school adult support, were associated with a decreased likelihood of substance use among transgender students; for instance, higher levels of school connection were associated with a 30% decreased odds of past 30-day cigarette use (AOR = .70; 95% CI = .60–.82), above and beyond the key risk factor of school-based victimization. This study’s findings suggest that school educators, staff, and administration should receive training around transgender-inclusive practices, and schools should implement transgender-affirming education, programming, and services to improve school connection and school adult support for transgender students.

Mental Health and Psychosocial Risk and Protective Factors Among Black and Latinx Transgender Youth Compared With Peers

Black and Latinx transgender youth experience stigma that may increase their susceptibility to mental health symptoms. To compare past-year mental health symptoms and psychosocial factors among Black and Latinx transgender youth, White transgender youth, and Black and Latinx cisgender youth. This survey study used data from the 2015-2017 Biennial California Healthy Kids Survey with a weighted sample (N = 45 269) representative of California's secondary school population. The analytic sample (n = 19 780) included Black and Latinx transgender youth, White transgender youth, and Black and Latinx cisgender youth in the 9th and 11th grades. Data analysis was conducted from July 2020 to February 2021. Outcomes include past-year depressive symptoms and suicidality. Psychosocial risk factors include school-based victimization, gender-based harassment, sexuality-based harassment, and race-based harassment; protective factors include school connectedness and caring adult relationships. The analytic sample of 19 780 participants (in 9th grade: weighted percentage, 51% [95% CI, 50% to 52%]; female participants: weighted percentage, 50% [95% CI, 49% to 51%]) included 252 Black and Latinx transgender youth (weighted percentage, 1.3% [95% CI, 1.1% to 1.5%]), 104 White transgender youth (weighted percentage, 0.7% [95% CI, 0.6% to 0.8%]), and 19 424 Black and Latinx cisgender youth (weighted percentage, 98.0% [95% CI, 97.8% to 98.2%]). For Black and Latinx transgender youth, estimated prevalence of depressive symptoms and suicidality were 50% (95% CI, 44% to 57%) and 46% (95% CI, 39% to 52%), respectively. Logistic regression models adjusted for grade, living arrangement, and reported sex indicated that compared with White transgender youth, Black and Latinx transgender youth had similar odds of depressive symptoms (adjusted odds ratio, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.4 to 1.1) and suicidality (adjusted odds ratio, 1.1; 95% CI, 0.6 to 1.8) and similar odds of all forms of harassment (eg, race-based harassment: adjusted odds ratio, 1.5; 95% CI, 0.8 to 2.6). Regression models indicated that compared with White transgender youth, Black and Latinx transgender youth had similar levels of victimization (adjusted linear regression coefficient, 0.5; 95% CI, -0.3 to 1.3) and caring adult relationships (adjusted linear regression coefficient, -0.6; 95% CI, -1.4 to 0.09) but lower levels of school connectedness (adjusted linear regression coefficient, -1.6; 95% CI, -2.9 to -0.4). With similar analyses, compared with Black and Latinx cisgender youth, Black and Latinx transgender youth had higher odds of depressive symptoms (adjusted odds ratio, 2.7; 95% CI, 2.0 to 3.7) and suicidality (adjusted odds ratio, 5.9; 95% CI, 4.3 to 8.0), higher odds and levels of all forms of harassment and victimization (eg, race-based harassment: adjusted odds ratio, 3.2; 95% CI, 2.4 to 4.5), and lower levels of school connectedness (adjusted linear regression coefficient, -2.6; 95% CI -3.3 to -1.8) and caring adult relationships (adjusted linear regression coefficient, -0.9; 95% CI -1.3 to -0.5). In this study, Black and Latinx transgender youth had high rates of mental health symptoms, with rates comparable with White transgender youth but higher than Black and Latinx cisgender youth. Their unique pattern of psychosocial risk and protective factors for these mental health symptoms should be factored in clinical preventive services and school-based interventions to support them.

Examining Patterns of School-Based Polyvictimization and Repeat Victimization: A Latent Class Analysis Approach

ABSTRACT This study uncovers nuances in the range and frequency of adolescent school-based victimization experiences, focusing on the gendered nature of these experiences. A concentration on indicators of criminal opportunity reveals unique predictors of pathways to single-time, poly, and repeat victimization within the school domain. Results from Latent Class Analysis and multinomial logistic regression models indicate that the standard dichotomy of victimization masks the possibility that there are more than two substantively unique classes of school victimization experiences and that many common risk factors may be important for membership in one class but may not matter for membership in other classes.

Street Codes and Adolescent Violent Victimization at School: Unpacking a Complex Relationship

This study examines the effects of adherence to street codes on school-based violent victimization. In doing so, it separates street values into two distinct orientations: (1) retaliatory norms, and (2) general toughness norms. We analyze survey data from students across four waves of the Rural Substance Abuse and Violence Project using two-level mixed effects Poisson regression. The model specifies random intercepts across individuals to address possible endogeneity of the repeated measurements per respondent. Further, consistent with a fixed-effects approach, we control for differences across the schools in which students were nested. Findings reveal that adherence to retaliatory norms is negatively related to the frequency of serious violent victimization. In contrast, general toughness norms are positively related to serious violent victimization.

School and Cybervictimization Across High School: Normative Developmental Trajectories and Bidirectional Links with Loneliness.

The current study examines normative developmental trajectories of school and cybervictimization across 3years of high school and tests whether school and cybervictimization experiences predict increases in loneliness at school or whether loneliness at school increases the risk of victimization. Gender differences are also explored. Data were drawn from a longitudinal sample of 4,339 ethnically diverse U.S. adolescents (Mage =15.02) who completed surveys in 9th, 10th, and 11th grades. Whereas school victimization decreased, cybervictimization increased across high school. School-based victimization and loneliness were bidirectionally related across time (controlling for cybervictimization), but cybervictimization and loneliness were not related (controlling for school victimization). The findings provide a nuanced account of the associations between school and cybervictimization with feelings of isolation at school.

A Statewide Study of School-Based Victimization, Discriminatory Bullying, and Weapon Victimization by Student Homelessness Status

Abstract Youths who experience homelessness are at high risk of victimization, yet little is known about school violence in the context of students experiencing homelessness. Specifically, limited research has considered different subgroups of students experiencing homelessness according to the McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act (nonsheltered, sheltered, doubled up) in comparison with nonhomeless students. Using a representative sample ofCalifornia public high school students (N = 390,028), authors applied bivariate and multivariate analyses to examine differences among nonsheltered, sheltered, and doubled-up students experiencing homelessness regarding levels of discriminatory bullying, behavioral victimization, and weapon victimization at school. Findings show that students experiencing homelessness across all subgroups are at high risk of experiencing school violence. The severity of findings and differences among subgroups emphasize the need to develop school-based responses for each subgroup. Providers serving youths experiencing homelessness are encouraged to consider schools as a site for prevention and intervention for this population.

Associations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Questioning–Inclusive Sex Education With Mental Health Outcomes and School-Based Victimization in U.S. High School Students

PurposeHomophobic school climates are related to increased victimization for sexual minority youth (SMY), leading to increased risk of adverse mental health outcomes. Interventions that promote positive school climate may reduce the risk of victimization and adverse mental health outcomes in SMY. This study explored whether lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ)–inclusive sex education is associated with adverse mental health and school-based victimization in U.S. youth. MethodsData analysis of representative data from the 2015 Youth Risk Behavior Survey and the 2014 School Health Profiles was conducted using multilevel logistic models testing whether youth in states with higher proportions of schools teaching LGBTQ-inclusive sex education had lower odds of reporting being bullied in school and experiencing adverse mental health outcomes, including depressive symptoms and suicidality. ResultsAfter controlling for covariates, protective effects for all youth were found for suicidal thoughts (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: .91, 95% confidence interval [CI]: .89–.93) and making a suicide plan (AOR: .79; 95% CI: .77–.80). Lesbian and gay youth had lower odds of experiencing bullying in school as the proportion of schools within a state teaching LGBTQ-inclusive sex education increased (AOR: .83; CI: .71–.97). Bisexual youth had significantly lower odds of reporting depressive symptoms (AOR: .92; 95% CI: .87–.98). ConclusionsStudents in states with a greater proportion of LGBTQ-inclusive sex education have lower odds of experiencing school-based victimization and adverse mental health. These findings can be used to guide intervention development at the school and state levels.

Associations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Questioning–Inclusive Sex Education With Mental Health Outcomes and School-Based Victimization in U.S. High School Students

Associations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Questioning–Inclusive Sex Education With Mental Health Outcomes and School-Based Victimization in U.S. High School Students

Sexual Minority Youth Report High-Intensity Binge Drinking: The Critical Role of School Victimization

PurposeTo examine standard binge drinking (≥4 drinks for females, ≥5 drinks for males) and high-intensity binge drinking (≥8 drinks for females, ≥10 drinks for males) among heterosexual and sexual minority youth in the US and whether reports of school-based victimization mediate this association. MethodsSurvey data are from the 2015 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS; n = 10,839, Mage = 16.07). Logistic regression adjusted for race/ethnicity and age compared rates of standard and high-intensity binge drinking among heterosexual and sexual minority youth and whether experiences of school-based victimization mediated this association. Effects were tested in full sample and sex-stratified models. ResultsLesbian and bisexual girls and girls with male and female partners were more likely than heterosexual girls to report standard rates of binge drinking. Lesbian girls and girls reporting male and female sexual partners were more likely than heterosexual girls to report high-intensity binge drinking in the past 30 days. Compared with heterosexual boys, gay boys were significantly less likely to participate in high-intensity binge drinking. School-based victimization mediated all significant associations between sexual minority status and standard and high-intensity binge drinking, with the exception of lesbian girls. ConclusionLesbian and behaviorally bisexual girls have elevated risk for high-intensity binge drinking relative to heterosexual girls. Findings point to the importance of policies that reduce school-based victimization as these experiences are associated with higher rates of standard and high-intensity binge drinking among sexual minority girls.

School-Based Violent Victimization in Turkey: Are Correlates Gender-Specific?

The present study builds upon limited recent work suggesting that the correlates of adolescent school-based victimization are gendered in important ways. In particular, it broadens the international scope of such research by exploring the potentially gendered nature of predictors of school-based violent victimization in Turkey. Like much of the previous U.S.-based research, the focus here is on the potentially gender-specific effects of variables derived from lifestyle-routine activities and low self-control theories. For this article, the data are based on a subsample from The National High School Offending and Victimization Survey in Turkey. The subsample included 461 male and 452 female students from 15 high schools within Turkey's Mersin province. Binary regression coefficients were estimated for 20 datasets generated through a multivariate sequential imputation technique, with results then pooled. Binary logistic regression models showed that many of the propositions of lifestyle-routine activities theory were generally supported for both genders. However, some results were suggestive of the notion of "gendered opportunity"-that indicators of opportunity for victimization vary across males and females. Gender-specific findings imply that there are some important differences in terms of the impact of low self-control and lifestyle, which might require gender-specific interventions. In addition, regardless of gender, students who reported that school administration was effective in controlling weapons at school were less likely to be victimized, and students who reported there being unsupervised areas at their schools had higher odds of victimization. As such, supervisory practices and target hardening strategies seem important for curbing all students' victimization risk in Turkey.

Personality and Adolescent School-Based Victimization: Do the Big Five Matter?

ABSTRACTSelf-control has provided a useful framework for understanding both offending behavior and victimization risk. As a theory of victimization, research has established that low self-control is directly related to victimization risk beyond a range of other factors. This finding raises the issue of whether other personality traits are associated with an increased risk of victimization. Using a sample of ninth-grade adolescents (N = 2,912) from the Rural Substance Abuse and Violence Project, we tested whether the Big Five Inventory of personality traits predicted adolescent school-based victimization above and beyond low self-control and rival explanations of victimization. The results indicate that, after controlling for risky behaviors, school attachment, and low self-control, neuroticism is positively related to victimization. This finding suggests that examining traits other than low self-control is important to capture fully what makes someone vulnerable to crime. Further, we consider the theoretical and policy implications of the findings.

Showing friendship, fighting back, and getting even: resisting bullying victimization within adolescent girls’ friendships

ABSTRACTResearch suggests that about a quarter of bullying incidences occur within friendships. Yet little attention is given to the underlying social processes and wider macro-system forces that shape friendship victimization experiences. Guided by constructivist grounded theory and Wade's work on resistance, this research explored the phenomenon of victimization within adolescent girls’ friendships. Canadian women reflecting on their school-based victimization experiences were interviewed for this study. Results suggest that participants resisted victimization in important ways but that their resistance strategies were negotiated within gender expectations and ambient discursive constructions of resistance and victimization. Our findings illuminate the ways that discourses concealing women's resistance and privileging overt responses to bullying run counter to gendered expectations for resistance, leaving women in a double bind. Consequently, we found that retaliatory relational aggression allowed girls to deny their victim status while complying with gendered expectations for resistance but led to their bullying experiences being normalized and overlooked.

The benefits of being defended: Perceived bystander participant roles and victims’ emotional and psychosocial adjustment

ABSTRACTDespite a wealth of knowledge for factors predicting adolescent defending behaviors, it remains unknown about victims’ adjustment resulting from experiencing the presence of different bystander roles in a victimization episode. This study analyzed 209 Taiwanese adolescents’ reports of school-based peer victimization, perceived bystander actions in the event, and the victims’ emotional responses (e.g., happy, sad), emotional status following the episode (e.g., feeling better, worse), and psychosocial maladjustment (i.e., depression, loneliness, anxiety). Our results showed that bystander participant roles varied by victimization types and that defended victims adjusted better than nondefended victims both emotionally and psychologically. Moreover, adolescent victims who reported the presence of an outsider during the victimization experienced more complex and negative emotional responses than victims who reported the presence reinforcer or assistant of the bully. Implications for interventions and prevention are discussed.

Suicidality and Intersectionality Among Students Identifying as Nonheterosexual and With a Disability

Research about students with disabilities and students identifying as LGBQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, or questioning) reveals that both populations report more suicidality and peer victimization and less school connectedness than do their peers. No study has previously examined the intersection of these identities with regard to peer victimization, school connectedness, and suicidality. Using a sample of 11,364 high school students, we examined the relationships among these identities, peer victimization, and school connectedness with suicidal ideation. Compared with their peers without either identity, students identifying with one of these identities reported higher levels of suicidal ideation. School connectedness and peer victimization each moderated the association between identity and suicidal ideation. In addition, students who were victimized more than their peers and who identified both with a disability and as LGBQ ( n = 250) reported the highest levels of suicidal ideation. School-based victimization and suicide prevention programs should consider students’ multiple identities.