Religious Studies Scholars Research Articles

The Public Perception of “Cults” and “New Religious Movements”

The term “cult” has attracted much criticism from several sociologists of religion and religious studies scholars in recent years, and many scholars have dropped the word for a less pejorative term such as “new religious movement” (NRM). This research note seeks to determine if simply substituting an alternative term for cult changes people's attitudes toward a religious group. To this end, over 2,400 randomly selected Nebraskans were asked how comfortable they would feel if their neighbor joined a cult, NRM, or a “new Christian church,” and whether the government should regulate the activities of these groups. The survey results reveal the remarkably negative view Nebraskans have of cults, their general acceptance of NRMs, and their broad support for new Christian churches.

The Invention of World Religions, or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism (review)

Reviewed by: The Invention of World Religions, Or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism Frank M. Turner (bio) The Invention of World Religions, Or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism, by Tomoko Masuzawa; pp. xv + 359. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2005, $47.50, $19.00 paper, £30.00, £12.00 paper. This volume traces the forces in nineteenth-century European thought that resulted in the establishment of the idea of world religious traditions; for over a century, this idea has determined the fundamental framework for the teaching and analysis of non-Christian religions in West European and American universities. Tomoko Masuzawa primarily pursues the early history of religious studies, but in the process she also seeks to provide another somewhat predictable example of cultural criticism. The result is more successful in the former than the latter. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries European commentators on religion saw the world divided into four broad religious traditions: Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and a collection of pagan or idolatrous religions. By the early twentieth century scholars of religious studies in Europe and the United States had expanded their understanding of the great world religious traditions to eleven: Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shinto, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, and Sikhism. To most observers, and to many scholars who opened the way for the expansion of this list, the process appeared to be a movement from exclusion to inclusion, or toward religious pluralism. Masuzawa persuasively argues that there was nothing inevitable in the expansion of the list of world religions and that despite the appearance of pluralism Western values determined the outcome. In one of the strongest chapters of the book, Masuzawa explores mid-nineteenth-century English comparative theology. Her chief protagonists are F. D. Maurice, James Freeman Clarke, and Charles Hardwick. Both Maurice and Clarke were willing to expand the number of religions that the scholar should consider, sought to find an essence of true religion, and then presented non-Christian religions as in one way or another incomplete renditions of an essentially true religion. Hardwick was the Christian Advocate at Cambridge; paradoxically, Masuzawa finds Hardwick better informed than either Maurice or Clarke but largely ignored by later scholars because of his outright advocacy of Christianity. Hardwick was but one of many scholarly Victorian authors who studied in detail non-Christian religions in order to demonstrate the superiority of Christianity. Masuzawa quite importantly contends that such writers, despite their supposedly non-scientific advocacy of Christianity, actually advanced the agenda of establishing knowledge of non-Christian religions. This sharp analysis is part of her larger goal to unmask what she clearly believes to be the questionable assertion that the scientific or objective study of religion must be separated from religious commitment on the part of the scholar. In this respect, she directly challenges any triumphalism or whiggism on the part of those who would write the history of modern academic religious studies. The two most interesting case studies that Masuzawa addresses are the rapid [End Page 519] inclusion of Buddhism in the canon of world religion and the deep resistance to a similar inclusion of Islam. The assimilation of Buddhism became possible through the rise of analysis of Indo-European languages, from the Romantic age onward. The linguists who championed an Indo-European family of languages—originating in India and then spreading over Asia and eventually to Europe, particularly to Greece—contended that inflected languages were capable of intellectual subtleties not available to non-inflected languages. This same analysis linked Greek, and hence European, civilization to India, the home of Buddhism. Thus Buddhism was a precursor to Western civilization and informed that civilization. On these and other grounds Buddhism found many scholars who came to see it as a great world religious tradition. Europeans had always been hostile to Islam, but that hostility changed during the nineteenth century. Islam came to be seen as a Semitic religion. Arabic, like Hebrew, was a non-inflected language; neither was deemed capable of the same kind of intellectual power as the Indo-European languages. By the end of the century, Islam, despite the actual demographics (then as...

Freedom and tradition in Hegel: reconsidering anthropology, ethics, and religion

Freedom and Tradition in Hegel stands at the intersection of three vital currents in contemporary ethics: debates over philosophical anthropology and its significance for ethics, reevaluations of tradition and modernity, and a resurgence of interest in Hegel. Thomas A. Lewis engages these three streams of thought in light of Hegel's recently published Vorlesungen uber die Philosophie des Geistes. Drawing extensively on these lectures, Lewis addresses an important lacuna in scholarship by first providing a systematic analysis of Hegel's philosophical anthropology and then examining its fundamental role in shaping Hegel's ethical and religious thought. Lewis contends that Hegel's anthropology seeks to account for both the ongoing significance of the religious and philosophical traditions in which we are raised and our ability to transcend these traditions. Pursuing the implications of the integral role of practice in Hegel's anthropology, Lewis argues for a more progressive interpretation of Hegel's ethics and a Hegelian critique of Hegel's most problematic statements on political and social issues. Lewis concludes that Hegel offers a powerful strategy for reconciling freedom and tradition. This fresh interpretation of Hegel's work provides a challenging new perspective on his ethical and religious thought. It will be of significant value to students and scholars in religious studies, philosophy, and political theory.

Resisting the Third Reich: the Catholic clergy in Hitler's Berlin

When Nazism swept Germany, how did religious leaders respond to attacks not only on their fellow citizens and their government but on their faith as well? Despite charges of complacency, the Catholic clergy of the Berlin diocese in fact maintained a quiet resistance to the Nazi regime by offering their parishioners an alternative to National Socialism. In thus broadening the definition of resistance, Kevin Spicer shows why Nazism was so powerfully alluring in the first place. It provided - indeed demanded - a total way of life, encompassing rituals and social belonging, personal identity and charismatic leadership, moral values and a sense of purpose. In a word, it was a religion. Spicer juxtaposes Catholicism and Nazism to provide a clear, balanced understanding of the challenges the lay clergy faced simply by celebrating the sacraments and teaching the faithful. By following individual priests in their day-to-day ministries, he documents how effectively they guarded the sheep from a predatory ideology. Along the way, he highlights the leadership of Bishop Konrad von Preysing of Berlin, who enabled the diocesan clergy to speak out against Nazi violations of Catholic doctrine and practice, and Monsignor Bernhard Lichtenberg, who was sentenced to prison for publicly praying for Jews and other victims of Nazi oppression. Yet the clergy's opposition to Nazism did not, for the most part, inspire them to act on behalf of the oppressed. Spicer explores the reasons why one group - the so-called Brown Priests - chose to support National Socialism and what that choice meant for the Church. Resisting the Third Reich will appeal to historians, religious studies scholars, and readers with an interest in the Catholic tradition.

The strange death of moral Britain

In the last half of the twentieth century, a once respectable and religious became a seriously violent and dishonest society, one in which person and property were at risk, family breakdown was ubiquitous, and drug and alcohol abuse was rising. Strange Death of Moral Britain demonstrates in detail the roots of Britain's decline. It also shows how a society, strongly Protestant in both morality and identity, became one of the most secular societies in the world. The culture wars about abortion, capital punishment, and homosexuality, which have convulsed the United States, have little meaning in where there is neither a moral majority nor any indigenous emphasis on rights. In the period when had a strong national and religious identity, defense of this identity led to legal persecution of male homosexuals. As Britain's identity crumbled, homosexuality ceased to be an important issue for most people. Similarly, all the pressing questions on abortion, capital punishment, and homosexuality were settled permanently on a purely utilitarian basis in Britain, where all sources of moral argument are weak. The ending of the death penalty marked the decline of the influence of the official hierarchies of church and state, the Church of England, the armed forces, and their representative, the Conservative Party. The Strange Death of Moral is a study of moral change, secularization, loss of identity, and the growth of deviant behavior in in the twentieth century. Based on detailed scholarship, it is tightly argued and clearly written with a minimum of jargon. It will be of interest to scholars in religious studies and British social history, and to a general reading public concerned with timely moral controversies.

Dictionary of gods and goddesses

An essential collection of more than 2,500 deities of the world. For more than 60,000 years, people have worshiped deities of the sun, sky, and sea, as well as creator gods, relying on the guidance of faith in the midst of the mysterious world around them. Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses. Second Edition provides access to more than 2,500 of these religious figures, from ancient Sumerian gods through the modern Haitian deities. Providing a plethora of information from cultures as diverse as the Aztecs, Celts, and Japanese, this dictionary discusses lesser-known divinities as well as the contemporary gods of the major monotheistic religions - Allah, God, and Yahweh, among others. New features, including cross-references and a comprehensive index, make this revised edition more accessible than ever. Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses, Second Edition is an indispensable resource perfect for general readers interested in mythology and religion, as well as scholars in religious studies, anthropology, history, and archaeology.

Practical pursuits: religion, politics, and personal cultivation in nineteenth-century Japan

The idea that personal cultivation leads to social and material well-being became wide spread in late Tokugawa Japan (1600-1868). Practical Pursuits explores theories of personal development that were diffused in the early nineteenth century by a network of religious groups in the Edo (Tokyo) area, and explains how, after the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the leading members of these communities went on to create ideological coalitions inspired by the pursuit of a modern form of cultivation. Variously engaged in divination, Shinto purification rituals, and Zen practice, these individuals ultimately used informal political associations to promote the Confucian-style assumption that personal improvement is the basis for national prosperity. This wide-ranging yet painstakingly researched study represents a new direction in historical analysis. Where previous scholarship has used large conceptual units like Confucianism and Buddhism as its main actors and has emphasized the discontinuities in Edo and Meiji religious life, Sawada addresses the history of religion in nineteenth-century Japan at the level of individuals and small groups. She employs personal cultivation as an interpretive system, crossing familiar boundaries to consider complex linguistic, philosophical, and social interconnections. Moreover, because the task of self-improvement was a common concern across social classes, by focusing on this practical pursuit, Sawada demonstrates in a new way the problematic nature of the conventional distinction between popular and high religion. Scholars of religious studies and of Japanese intellectual and social history will applaud her attempt to bring together the many participants in the nineteenth-century discourse of personal cultivation.

Engaging habits and besotted idolatry: viewing chinese religions in the american west

Through an analysis of late-nineteenth century “Asian invasion” literature and periodicals of the American West, this article compiles Protestant representations of Chinese religious practice in America. In pulp fiction and studies published by Bret Harte in his Overland Monthly, white Americans translated the peculiarities of the Chinese Other into manageable symbols and narrative conventions. While these representations appear flagrantly racist and reductive, they also reveal a genuine struggle for interpretation and commensurability. However, most scholarship in religious studies addressing Asian American encounter emphasizes the elite enjoyment of Asian theological and philosophical documents, avoiding the messier moral viewpoints of these pastoral observers and urban American Christian missionaries. I suggest that focusing instead on popular images of Chinese religions allow us to begin to reconstruct a history of religious encounter that ushers us into a different material world, one that highlights the interaction of physical bodies, buildings, and artifacts in time and space. Unless we can rewrite that Euro-American history of encounter (and include the physical and material dimensions as part of the equation), and link it conceptually to the experiences of real Chinese migrants and Chinese Americans, the story of those lost voices will always remain an interesting sidelight to the main show.

Theology is not Mere Sociology: A Theological Reflection on the Reception of the Christian Religion in Mainland China

Abstract: Post‐Maoist China retains its loyalty to Marxist principles; yet voices are being heard that interpret religion much more positively. Both government spokespersons and Religious Studies scholars measure the value of religion according to its social function. Such a criterion of evaluation fails to take account of what is essential to Christian theology, namely, appeal to divine transcendence. Yet, Christian theology in the tradition of the Lutheran Reformation begins with transcendence and turns toward human responsibility for the world through loving the neighbor. This may mark a common cause between Chinese sociology of religion and Christian commitments to social well‐being.

Moral, believing animals: human personhood and culture

What kind of animals are human beings? And how do our visions of the human shape our theories of social action and institutions? In Moral, Believing Animals, Christian Smith offers innovative, challenging answers to these and other fundamental questions in sociological, cultural, and religious theory. Smith's work is based on the assumption (unfashionable in certain circles) that human beings have an identifiable and peculiar set of capacities and proclivities that distinguishes them significantly from other animals on this planet. Smith argues that all people are at bottom believers, whose lives, actions, and institutions are constituted, motivated, and governed by narrative traditions and moral orders on which they inescapably depend. This approach - which has profound consequences for how we think about knowledge, culture, social action, institutions, religion, and the task of social sciences - will be of interest to scholars in sociology, social theory, religious and cultural studies, psychology, and anthropology.

The Role of Ideas in the Civil Rights South

With essays by Tony Badger, David L. Chappell, Elizabeth Jacoway, Richard H. King, Ralph E. Luker, Charles Marsh, Keith D. Miller, Linda Reed, and Lauren F. Winner In the 1950s and 1960s the American South was in upheaval. Brilliant thinkers and writers joined on-the-ground activists to challenge segregation and the South's long established Jim Crow society. The men and women who opposed them waged a war of words in favor of the status quo. The essays in The Role of Ideas in the Civil Rights South examine the interplay of thought and action in a complex and turbulent moment in American history. Written by scholars in history, English, and religious studies, these essays explore ideas about religion, freedom, race, liberalism, and conservatism. When people challenged authority, or defended it, what ideas did they uphold? What were their moral and intellectual standards? What language did they use, and what sources did they cite? What issues did they feel needed explaining, what issues did they take for granted, and what issues did they avoid? Leading scholars investigate the wide range of conceptions, interpretations, and responses to the whirlwind of change. Some of the essays concentrate on intellectuals who were systematic thinkers who published their work to be studied, analyzed, and used. Four essays center on the ideas of Martin Luther King, Jr., surely the most influential southern intellectual in the 1950s and 1960s. Other essays analyze the thoughts of people, such as civil rights activist Fannie Lou Hamer and segregationist politician Jim Johnson, who never saw themselves as intellectuals. The civil rights movement set the agenda for thought and action in the 1950s and 1960s. The Role of Ideas in the Civil Rights South begins by examining ideas prominent in the movement. It then studies the ideas of white moderates in the South, white conservatives, and African Americans who did not join the movement. Particular emphases include the relationship between theology and political life, the national and international contexts of southern thought, and the variety of southern intellectual interests. Ted Ownby is a professor of history and southern studies at the University of Mississippi. His books include American Dreams in Mississippi: Consumers, Poverty, and Culture, 1830-1998 (1999) and Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920 (1990).

Colors of the robe: religion, identity, and difference

A new approach to the study of cultural life in general and religion in particular; Poised to spark debate among scholars of religious studies and other disciplines, Colors of the Robe sheds new light on the Sri Lankan Buddhist universe of ethics and politics and, more important, suggests innovative directions for the global study of religion, identity, culture, politics, and violence. In a volume that surpasses other studies in tracking, identifying, contextualizing, and interpreting Sri Lankan Buddhism in its sectarian, ethnic, cultural, social, and political dimensions, Ananda Abeysekara lays down a challenge to postcolonial and postmodern theory. He argues that although criticisms have undermined the orientalist constructions of culture, they cannot help us understand, let alone theorize, the emergence of contemporary authoritative discourses that define distinctions involving religion and violence, identity and difference. Supplanting that aim, Abeysekara illuminates the shifting configurations that characterize the relations connected with postcolonial religious identity and culture. Drawing on extensive field research in Sri Lanka, Abeysekara illustrates how differing meanings of such religious and national concepts come into central view and then fade, denying them fixity. Proposing an alternative, he develops the concept of conjunctures of and places it in modest opposition to the work of Michel Foucault and other leading postmodern thinkers. Abeysekara attends to these minute conjunctures of contingency to understand such categories as religion and difference, Buddhism and politics, civilization and terror. He thereby resists today's antiessentialist arguments without falling back on yesterday's foundationalist claims. Viewing religion through this lens, Abeysekara contends, has profound political implications for how we might more generally think about and begin to disrupt entrenched presumptions of postcolonial cultural difference.

Religion, education, and the American experience: reflections on religion and American public life

Education in America - public and private, from the elementary to the university level - is the subject of urgent, ongoing debates. School vouchers, home schooling, prayer in the classrooms, sex education in the schools, and evolution versus creationism are just a few of the touchstones and flashpoints that have ignited a national concerning the role of religion in U.S. educational institutions. The ten major essays assembled here emerged from a series of conferences conducted by the Public Religion Project at the University of Chicago Divinity School, funded by a grant from The Pew Charitable Trust. Written by recognized leaders in the fields of education and religion, the essays address such issues as the role of religious studies programs in tax-supported public universities; the evolving role of the university chaplain; the impact of religious doctrine on literary scholarship and the natural sciences; the college president as a spiritual leader; the secularization of private colleges whose foundations rest in the spiritual mission of a specific church or denomination and, conversely, the obligations, if any, of colleges that have maintained distinct denominational identities toward pluralistic outreach and openness; and an examination of the home schooling movement. A true dialogue designed to inspire readers to rethink, argue, act, and continually converse on the subject, Religion, Education, and the American Experience will appeal to educators, college and university administrators, and boards of trustees, as well as academic libraries and scholars of education and religious studies.

CONFUCIUS AND THE MEDIUMS: IS THERE A "POPULAR CONFUCIANISM"?

In most areas of study it is the fundamental questions that tend to remain unresolved. Thus, scholars in religious studies have been amassing innumerable studies on specific religions, aspects of religious life, beliefs, doctrines and practices, but so far have not yet been able to agree on what religion actually is, what falls under this label and what does not. Likewise, students of Confucianism have not been able to solve such basic issues concerning their chosen subject matter as: Is Confucianism a philosophy or a religion? Should we even speak of it as an -ism, or should we call it more loosely tradition or thought? The present article will deal with a related basic question that so far has not been resolved satisfactorily, namely, whether there is such a thing as a Confucianism? Or, put differently: are there sections of Chinese popular culture that can meaningfully be interpreted as Confucian? I approach this question not by imposing the label Confucian on likely elements of popular culture, but by examining the use of the label Ru 5{ among twentieth-century popular religious groups. As I will be dealing with religious groups that self-consciously use this label as an autonym, the question will not be: Are these groups Confucian?, but rather: What do they

DE-CENTRING RELIGIOUS SINGULARITY: THE GLOBALIZATION OF CHRISTIANITY AS A CASE IN POINT

AbstractRecent scholarship in religious studies has again questioned the validity of the idea of religions and of certain religions in particular, such as Hinduism. The debate raises the question of how any religion, including Christianity, can be thought of or lived as a singular identity in today's world. While this is a very broad question with a very long history, this presentation translates the matter into one of the relation between globalization, localization, and religion. It argues that in the more recent phases of historical globalization, the issue of unity, identity, and singularity in religion has fundamentally changed from one which depends on a hierarchical and core/periphery distribution of defining power to one in which singularity is the observed or recognized outcome of multiple localizations of a contested and global model. Thus the singularity of a religion is not just the product of uneven power relations between those who get to define and those who do not, but rather the internally and externally observed synthesis of plural glocalizations. This abstract thesis is illustrated on hand of an examination of developments in global Christianity especially in the 19th and 20th centuries.

On moving across: translocative religion and the interpreter's position

Scholars in many fields have considered the position of the interpreter, and religious studies scholars have addressed some of the relevant issues. However, none of the available accounts is fully satisfying because they either fail to locate the interpreter or imagine the interpreter's position as fixed. In this article I draw on my experience of doing fieldwork with transnational migrants as I try to move toward a more textured account of where we stand when we do our work. I explore the ambiguities of that position and suggest that scholars, like transnational migrants, are constantly moving across. Scholars continually move back and forth between inside and outside, fact and value, evidence and narrative, the living and the dead, here and there, us and them.

The discursive position of religious studies in Japan: Masaharu Anesaki and the origins of religious studies

AbstractIn Japan today, the issue of religious cults is a frequent topic of discussion, particularly in the aftermath of the Aum Shinrikyo incident. However, at the time of the Aum incident, the views of scholars in religious studies were scarcely heeded. This can be attributed to the fact that for many people, religious studies was thought to lean too much toward a defense of religion. Focusing upon Masaharu Anesaki, the founder of religious studies in Japan, this article explores the fundamental characteristics of the discourse of religious studies as it has come down to the present day. It seeks to elucidate the close relationship of religious studies to the political situation in Japanese society during the Meiji period (1868-1912), and how this contributed to the development of the field. It further maintains that in conjunction with state policies for national education, the discourse of religious studies helped instantiate religion as an integral component of modern society, one defined particularly by the vacillation between individualism and nationalism. After World War II, there were few in Japan who would openly express admiration for nationalist ideology, but in religious studies a tendency toward nationalism remained evident in its yearning for the solidarity of religious groups and other kinds of communal bodies. Thus, even as its outward form underwent change, this tendency toward nationalism not only served as a defense of religion, but it also continued to uphold the existing discursive positionality of religious studies.

An Introduction to Baha'i Law: Doctrinal Foundations, Principles and Structures

While the last and most recent of the revealed religions is generally considered to be Islam, religious scholars are gradually recognizing that a religion founded later in the modern era, the Bahā'ī Faith, displays all the characteristics of a universal religion. Whereas scholars working in the field of Islamic Studies tended in the past to treat this religion under the sub-heading “Islamic sects,” and Religious Studies scholars for many years paid little attention to it, more recent research counts the Bahā'ī Faith as one of the world religions.The present study aims to provide an overview of the revealed law of the Bahā’ī Faith, which is of interest for students of both legal history and religious studies. We are entering virgin territory here, as no attempt has yet been made at a systematic jurisprudence, nor has a tradition of Bahā’ī jurisprudence been established that might compare with the Islamic Usūlu’l-figh. Since the foundations and principles of this law can be understood only within their theological context, and knowledge of this context is rare outside the Bahā’ī community, some basic background information about the faith will be provided first.

Murderers and martyrs: Violence, discourse, and the (re)construction of meaning

In recent years, the question of violence has drawn attention from religious studies scholars and public commentators alike. From schoolchildren with guns to terrorists with bombs, the perpetrators of violent acts have forced communities, nations, and even scholars to grapple with the nature and meaning of violence. But although significant attention has been paid to religious groups that foster violence and to those that resist it, the ways in which violence challenges structures of meaning have been addressed primarily by theologians seeking to grapple with overwhelming episodes of violence. This article suggests that certain violent acts can be classed as ‘symbolically disruptive violence'—acts that threaten or shatter a group's symbolic world. Although this analytical concept has broad applicability, the article explores its relevance for one in‐depth case study: reactions to the 1998 murder of Matthew Shepard in Laramie, Wyoming.

Creativity and Transcendence in the Work of Marion Milner

Marion Milner was a British psychoanalyst whose life spanned the major part of the twentieth century. Unlike D.W. Winnicott, her contemporary and friend, Milner has yet to be discovered by scholars of religious studies. 1 Like Winnicott, her work lends itself well to the study of religious symbolism from the perspective of the early infant-mother relationship. In addition, Milner wrote extensively about the nature of creativity, and, to some degree, its relationship to transcendence. In this essay I investigate Milner's view of "creativity" as a vehicle for experiencing transcendence. In the course of exploration, I also address the role of unconscious processes in religious experience. To do so I look at a portion of the corpus of Milner's work in three parts: 1) her articles on Blake's Illustrations to the Book of Job, 2) Milner's last published diary, Eternity's Sunrise, and 3) her published account of work with a schizophrenic patient in The Hands of the Living God. These three foci, along with references to other works, provide a fairly accurate picture of Milner's understanding of the relationship between creativity, transcendence, and the unconscious. I) Milner's Interest in Creativity Marion Milner was born in London in 1900 as Marion Blackett, in a family of modest means. Since an excellent biography can be found elsewhere, 2 in tracing Milner's life trajectory I will limit myself primarily to discussing her intellectual interests and career pursuits. When she was seventeen, Milner left school and obtained a position teaching a young boy how to read. The position was extremely fortuitous, in that Milner's work with the boy sparked her interest in how [End Page 185] individuals discover the ability to concentrate. Milner later obtained a university degree in psychology and physiology at University College, London. Upon graduation she commenced a position in vocational guidance and mental testing for the Vocational Guidance Department of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology. Two years later Milner began writing a diary exploring her own thinking processes, published in 1934 as A Life of One's Own (under the pseudonym Joanna Field). A second book, An Experiment in Leisure, was written while she was on leave from a project investigating the educational system of the Girls' Public Day School Trust. This book also examines the unconscious processes of her own mind. Milner's third book, The Human Problem in Schools (1938), resulted from the aforementioned school project. Upon returning to the school project, Milner entered into part-time psychoanalysis with Sylvia Payne. This choice of analyst put her "neither in the analytic stream led by Anna Freud nor in that led by Melanie Klein, for I did not even know that there was a deep controversy both in theory and practice between these two pioneers of the psychoanalysis of children" (Milner 1987b, 6). In 1939, the outbreak of the war put a moratorium on Milner's work in schools, and during this period she wrote her fourth book, On Not Being Able to Paint. This work is an extension of many of her earlier ideas, and it also explores the relationship between creativity and the analytic process. In 1940 Milner was accepted for training by the British Psycho-Analytic Society and subsequently began a new career as a psychoanalyst. In addition to her many psychoanalytic papers published in The Suppressed Madness of Sane Men: Forty-four Years of Exploring Psychoanalysis (1987), Milner's book The Hands of the Living God (1969) makes a significant psychoanalytic contribution in its meticulous record of a lengthy analysis with a schizophrenic patient. Her final book, Eternity's Sunrise (1987), is an account of her personal spiritual journey and captures the main themes in her life experience as an artist, psychoanalyst, and spiritual pilgrim. Marion Milner died in 1998. Both Melanie Klein and D.W. Winnicott significantly influenced the direction of Milner's work (Dragstedt 1998, 442-450). [End Page 186] Klein, for...