Schedule For Nonadaptive And Adaptive Personality Research Articles

Recovering the HEXACO Personality Factors – and Psychoticism – From Variable Sets Assessing Normal and Abnormal Personality

Abstract. We examined the joint factor structure of the 30 facets of the NEO Personality Inventory – Revised (NEO-PI-R; or the NEO-PI-3) with either (a) the 25 facets of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) or (b) the 15 facets of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) plus several dissociation scales, using self-reports from participant samples of previous research. The NEO-PI-R[3]/PID-5 variable set produced seven factors that represented the HEXACO factor space plus a “psychoticism” dimension. The NEO-PI-R/SNAP/dissociation variable set produced a similar set of seven factors. The results indicate that even some questionnaire variable sets not constructed to measure the HEXACO factors can recover those personality dimensions. Researchers interested in integrating the domains of normal and abnormal personality are advised to adopt a model consisting of six HEXACO-like dimensions plus a dimension of psychotic tendency.

Examining Triarchic Psychopathy Constructs in a Dutch Forensic Treatment Sample Using a Forensic Version of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality

Psychopathy, as described by the triarchic model, encompasses three distinct phenotypes: boldness, meanness, and disinhibition. The current study sought to operationalize these in a sample of 100 Dutch male forensic-psychiatric patients with differing forms of personality pathology who participated in a multi-site randomized clinical trial. Using an established construct-rating approach, triarchic scales were created using items from clinician-rated and self-report versions of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) adapted for forensic populations, the SNAP-F. Internal psychometric properties and criterion-related validity were evaluated. SNAP-F-Triarchic Meanness and Disinhibition scales showed acceptable internal consistencies, whereas the Boldness scales (which comprised fewer items) showed lower numbers. The scales showed associations with self-report and interview-based criterion measures largely in line with predictions, with higher validity for criteria assessed in the same measurement domain. Implications of findings for prediction of key outcomes in clinical settings are discussed, along with promising directions for future research.

Frequency and Detection of Malingering in Homicide Defendants Undergoing Criminal Responsibility Evaluations Using the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality

This retrospective study reports on (a) the prevalence of malingering in a sample of 20 homicide defendants seen in jail settings for criminal responsibility evaluations, and (b) the feasibility of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) for malingering detection in this sample. Based on previous non-clinical simulation research, it was hypothesized that the SNAP validity scales would predict group membership for homicide defendants malingering psychopathology. Those with intellectual disabilities or psychotic disorders were excluded. Diagnostically, nearly one half of the sample had Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.; DSM-IV-TR) personality and substance use disorders. Point prevalence of malingering was 30%. Using the criterion of any SNAP validity scale score in the clinical range ( T ≥ 65), a reasonable sensitivity was demonstrated in the detection of malingering (83%), yet this outcome was hindered by a high false positive rate (64%). This study suggests further exploration of the SNAP for assessing malingering in forensic populations is warranted.

Personality heterogeneity in PTSD: Distinct temperament and interpersonal typologies.

Researchers examining personality typologies of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have consistently identified 3 groups: low pathology, internalizing, and externalizing. These groups have been found to predict functional severity and psychiatric comorbidity. In this study, we employed Latent Profile Analysis to compare this previously established typology, grounded in temperament traits (negative emotionality; positive emotionality; constraint), to a novel typology rooted in interpersonal traits (dominance; warmth) in a sample of individuals with PTSD (n = 155). Using Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) traits to create latent profiles, the 3-group temperament model was replicated. Using Interpersonal Circumplex (IPC) traits to create latent profiles, we identified a 4-group solution with groups varying in interpersonal style. These models were nonredundant, indicating that the depiction of personality variability in PTSD depends on how personality is assessed. Whereas the temperament model was more effective for distinguishing individuals based on distress and comorbid disorders, the interpersonal model was more effective for predicting the chronicity of PTSD over the 10 year course of the study. We discuss the potential for integrating these complementary temperament and interpersonal typologies in the clinical assessment of PTSD.

Comparing countdown- and IRT-based approaches to computerized adaptive personality testing.

Computerized adaptive testing (CAT) is an emerging technology in the personality assessment literature given the greater efficiency it affords compared with traditional methods. However, few studies have directly compared the efficiency and validity of 2 competing methods for personality CAT: (a) methods based on item response theory (IRT-CAT) versus (b) methods based on the countdown method (CM-CAT). To that end, we conducted real-data simulations with previously collected responses (N = 8,690) to the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP). Three CAT algorithms (IRT-CAT, IRT-CAT with 5-item minimum, CM-CAT) were evaluated for item savings, classification accuracy, and convergent/discriminant validity. All CATs yielded lower classification accuracy and validity than traditional testing but required 18%-86% fewer items. Ultimately, the IRT-CAT, with minimum 5-item requirement, struck the most ideal balance of highest item savings, and generally fewer costs to validity and accuracy. These results confirm findings regarding item savings trends from previous CAT studies. In addition, this study provides a model for how the validity and precision of CATs may be compared across personality assessments.

Erratum to: An Exploratory Study of Integrative Personality Pathology Systems and the Interpersonal Circumplex

Calculation errors in “An exploratory study of integrative personality pathology systems and the interpersonal circumplex” by Hopwood, Koonce, and Morey (2009) led to systematic over-estimates of amplitude and elevation parameters reported in that paper. In Table 1 of that paper, amplitude parameters were estimated for two interpersonal surfaces, the Interpersonal Adjective Scales (IAS) and Inventory of Interpersonal Problems Circumplex (IIP-C) using trait scales from the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) and the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology (DAPP-BQ). As the elevation parameter is of limited interpretability on the IAS, elevation parameters were only reported for the IIP-C. Correct and reported values for Table 1 of the original paper are reported in Table 1 below. Calculation errors led to reported values that are uniformly higher than actual values (average over-estimate for amplitude was .13 and the average over-estimate for elevation was .09), however the correlations between the reported and correct values were>.95 for amplitude across all four subsets of analyses (i.e., IAS and IIP-C with SNAP and DAPP) and the correlations between reported and correct elevations were .86 for the DAPP and IIP-C and .99 for the SNAP and IIP-C. Given that calculation errors were uniform (i.e. largely correct in terms of rank order but consistently higher in terms of magnitude), substantive conclusions from the paper generally hold with the application of a more relaxed rubric for interpreting meaningful elevation and amplitude values. Specifically, Hopwood et al. classified elevation values>.30 as indicating meaningful relations to interpersonal problems and amplitude values>.30 as indicating thematic interpretability on the interpersonal circumplex surfaces. As all amplitude and elevation parameters that were reported to be>.30 are nearly all>.20, changing these cutoffs to .20 would lead to the same substantive conclusions. There were two exceptions. First, whereas the DAPP-BQ submissiveness amplitude on the IIP-C was originally reported as .34, which is above the interpretability cutoff of .30, the actual value is .18, which is below the corrected cutoff of .20. Second, the Insecure Attachment amplitude originally reported as .28 was below the cutoff of .30. However, the actual value of .20 would meet the .20 cutoff for the corrected values. Calculation errors also affected the amplitude estimates reported in the final column of Table 3 of the Hopwood et al. paper. The correct and reported values are given in Table 2. Again, these parameters were uniformly overestimated, and the results do not change substantive conclusions in the paper. The online version of the original article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s10862-008-9124-y.

Self-Harm Subscale of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP)

We examined the predictive power of the self-harm subscale of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) to identify suicide attempters in the Collaborative Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders (CLPS). The SNAP, a self-report personality inventory, was administered to 733 CLPS participants at baseline, of whom 701 (96%) had at least 6 months of follow-up data. Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were performed to examine the SNAP-self-harm subscale (SNAP-SH) in predicting the 129 suicide attempters over 8 years of follow-up. Possible moderators of prediction were examined, including borderline personality disorder, major depressive disorder (MDD), and substance use disorder. We also compared baseline administration of the SNAP-SH to subsequent administrations more proximal to the suicide attempt, and to a higher-order SNAP-negative temperament (SNAP-NT) subscale. Receiver operating characteristic analyses were conducted using suicide attempts (n = 58) over the first year of follow-up to provide reference points for sensitivity and specificity. The SNAP-SH demonstrated good predictive power for suicide attempts (hazard ratio = 1.28, P < .001) and appeared relatively consistent across borderline personality disorder, MDD, and substance use disorder diagnoses. Using more proximal scores did not increase predictive power. The SNAP-SH compared favorably to the predictive power of the higher-order SNAP-NT. Receiver operating characteristic analyses indicate several cutoff scores on the SNAP-SH that yield moderate to high sensitivity and specificity for predicting suicide attempts over the first year of follow-up. The SNAP-SH may be a useful screening instrument for risk of suicide attempts in nonpsychotic psychiatric patients.

Contrasting prototypes and dimensions in the classification of personality pathology: evidence that dimensions, but not prototypes, are robust

DSM-5 may mark the shift from a categorical classification of personality pathology to a dimensional system. Although dimensional and categorical conceptualizations of personality pathology are often viewed as competing, it is possible to develop categories (prototypes) from combinations of dimensions. Robust prototypes could bridge dimensions and categories within a single classification system. To explore prototype structure and robustness, we used finite mixture modeling to identify empirically derived personality pathology prototypes within a large sample (n=8690) of individuals from four settings (clinical, college, community, and military), assessed using a dimensional measure of normal and abnormal personality traits, the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP). We then examined patterns of convergent and discriminant external validity for prototypes. Finally, we investigated the robustness of the dimensional structure of personality pathology. The resulting prototypes were meaningful (externally valid) but non-robust (sample dependent). By contrast, factor analysis revealed that the dimensional structures underlying specific traits were highly robust across samples. We interpret these results as further evidence of the fundamentally dimensional nature of an empirically based classification of personality pathology.

Temporal stability of personality traits and disorders within substance dependent patients

The current study evaluated the temporal stability of personality disorders (PD) and traits as assessed by the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) within a sample being treated for substance dependence in a residential TC. Temporal stability coefficients were similar to the few previous studies with clinical samples and comparable retest intervals; however, the current study extended previous work by examining mean-level stability of the PD scales. While most SNAP scales remained stable or decreased over 6 months of active psychotherapy, increases on some scales (e.g. workaholism as well as antisocial, narcissistic and obsessive–compulsive PDs) raised compelling questions. These findings suggest additional research on the stability and validity of the SNAP in treatment samples. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Illustration of MIMIC-Model DIF Testing with the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality

This research provides an example of testing for differential item functioning (DIF) using multiple indicator multiple cause (MIMIC) structural equation models. True/False items on five scales of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) were tested for uniform DIF in a sample of Air Force recruits with groups defined by gender and ethnicity. Uniform DIF exists when an item is more easily endorsed for one group than the other, controlling for group mean differences on the variable under study. Results revealed significant DIF for many SNAP items and some effects were quite large. Differentially-functioning items can produce measurement bias and should be either deleted or modeled as if separate items were administered to different groups. Future research should aim to determine whether the DIF observed here holds for other samples.

Primary and secondary psychopathic characteristics and the schedule for non-adaptive and adaptive personality (SNAP)

The current study examined the relationship of the Levenson self-report psychopathy (LSRP) scales to indices of personality disorder (PD) and trait and temperament (TNT) from the schedule of non-adaptive and adaptive personality (SNAP). In a sample of college students ( N = 276), LSRP primary and secondary subscales were predictably related to SNAP PD scales reflecting cluster B symptoms; multiple regression analyses indicated that narcissistic (+) and antisocial (+) PD were the best predictors of primary psychopathy; antisocial (+), paranoid (+), obsessive–compulsive (−), and borderline (+) were the best predictors of secondary psychopathy. In terms of TNT scales, mistrust (+), manipulation (+), aggression (+), disinhibition (+), and impulsivity (+) were most consistently related to LSRP psychopathy scales. However, manipulation (+), exhibitionism (+) and entitlement (+) were more related to primary psychopathy whereas aggression (+), dependency (+) and positive emotions (−) were more related to secondary psychopathy. Finally, factor analysis of SNAP psychopathy-related scales and LSRP scales highlighted the discriminant validity of primary and secondary psychopathy.

Comparison of alternative models for personality disorders

The categorical classification system for personality disorder (PD) has been frequently criticized and several alternative dimensional models have been proposed. Antecedent, concurrent and predictive markers of construct validity were examined for three models of PDs: the Five-Factor Model (FFM), the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) model and the DSM-IV in the Collaborative Study of Personality Disorders (CLPS) sample. All models showed substantial validity across a variety of marker variables over time. Dimensional models (including dimensionalized DSM-IV) consistently outperformed the conventional categorical diagnosis in predicting external variables, such as subsequent suicidal gestures and hospitalizations. FFM facets failed to improve upon the validity of higher-order factors upon cross-validation. Data demonstrated the importance of both stable trait and dynamic psychopathological influences in predicting external criteria over time. The results support a dimensional representation of PDs that assesses both stable traits and dynamic processes.

Abnormal personality and the mood and anxiety disorders: Implications for structural models of anxiety and depression

Substantial overlap exists between the mood and anxiety disorders. Previous research has suggested that their comorbidity can be explained by a shared factor (negative emotionality), but that they may also be distinguished by other unique components. The current study explicated these relations using an abnormal personality framework. Current diagnoses of major depression and several anxiety disorders were assessed in 563 Gulf War veterans. Participants also completed the schedule for nonadaptive and adaptive personality (SNAP) to determine how these disorders relate to abnormal personality traits. Analyses of individual diagnoses indicated that depression, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were more strongly related to personality than were other anxiety disorders. The Self-Harm Scale distinguished major depression from all other disorders, highlighting its significance for future structural models. Our results add to a growing body of evidence suggesting that GAD and PTSD have more in common with major depression than with their anxiety disorder counterparts.

Validation of a Computerized Adaptive Version of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP).

This is a validation study of a computerized adaptive (CAT) version of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) conducted with 413 undergraduates who completed the SNAP twice, 1 week apart. Participants were assigned randomly to 1 of 4 retest groups: (a) paper-and-pencil (P&P) SNAP, (b) CAT, (c) P&P/CAT, and (d) CAT/P&P. With number of items held constant, computerized administration had little effect on descriptive statistics, rank ordering of scores, reliability, and concurrent validity, but was preferred over P&P administration by most participants. CAT administration yielded somewhat lower precision and validity than P&P administration, but required 36% to 37% fewer items and 58% to 60% less time to complete. These results confirm not only key findings from previous CAT simulation studies of personality measures but extend them for the 1st time to a live assessment setting.

The representation of four personality disorders by the schedule for nonadaptive and adaptive personality dimensional model of personality.

This study examined the relationships of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) model of personality to 4 targeted personality disorders (PDs) in a large multisite sample of patients. Data were examined from 529 patients, who were assigned 1 of 5 primary diagnoses: borderline, schizotypal, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive PDs and major depression without PD. Patients were administered the SNAP questionnaire and results were compared among diagnostic groups and between patient groups and nonclinical norms. Results indicated that the dimensions of the model appear to have considerable promise in differentiating normal from abnormal personality, particularly in the propensity of individuals with PDs to manifest negative affects and interpersonal detachment. Furthermore, the model appeared to successfully distinguish specific PDs, a property that represents a particular challenge for dimensional models of personality.

The Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (Snap)

The authors investigated the test-retest reliability and predictive validity of the diagnostic scales from the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP). Participants were identified from a sample of 240 undergraduates who completed the SNAP and the Social Adjustment Scale (SAS-SR) at Time 1. The authors selected 50 people who met criteria for a personality disorder (PD) based on the SNAP and 50 who did not qualify for a diagnosis. Eighty-three of these people completed the SNAP and the SAS-SR for a second time approximately 9 months after initial screening. SNAP PD scales were relatively stable over time. Test-retest correlation coefficients ranged from .58 to .81. Scores on diagnostic scales for paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal PD were inversely related to self-reported levels of adjustment for social roles concerned with work as a student, leisure activities, and relationships with family. The results provide some evidence for the validity of the SNAP

Anger Experience, Styles of Anger Expression, Sadistic Personality Disorder, and Psychopathy in Juvenile Sexual Homicide Offenders

Sexual homicide by juveniles is a rare phenomenon, and information regarding the psychological and behavioral characteristics of this group is limited. No studies exist which have investigated anger experience and styles of anger expression, and the relationship between anger, sadistic personality disorder, and psychopathy, in this type of youthful offender. These areas were explored by evaluating 14 juvenile sexual homicide offenders through clinical assessment, the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI), the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP), the Revised Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R), and review of correctional records. Descriptive information for the STAXI scales and internal consistency data are presented. Trait Anger was significantly higher than State Anger for the youth, but still comparable to adolescent norms. The difference between Anger-In and Anger-Out scale scores was not significant. Unexpectedly, Anger Control scale scores were significantly higher than Anger Out scale scores, clinically consistent with efforts by some of these boys to resist sadistic impulses. Those four (31%) participants who met criteria for sadistic personality had significantly higher Anger-Out scale scores than those without the disorder, and were also higher on Trait Anger to a marginally significant degree. Psychopathy was significantly negatively associated with Anger Control. This study is intended to contribute to the scant literature on juvenile sexual homicide, and lends some support to the validity and utility of sadistic personality disorder as a diagnosis in younger forensic populations. The findings did not support the contention that this form of violence is necessarily an outgrowth of excessive anger.

Short forms of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) for self- and collateral ratings: development, reliability, and validity.

Researchers and clinicians alike increasingly seek brief, reliable, and valid measures to obtain personality trait ratings from both selves and peers. We report the development of a paragraph-descriptor short form of a full-length personality assessment instrument, the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) with both self- and other versions. Reliability and validity data were collected on a sample of 294 college students, from 90 of whom we also obtained parental ratings of their personality. Internal consistency reliability was good in both self- and parent data. The factorial structures of the self-report short and long forms were very similar. Convergence between parental ratings was moderately high. Self-parent convergence was variable, with lower agreement on scales assessing subjective distress than those assessing more observable behaviors; it also was stronger for higher order factors than for scales.

Personality Characteristics of Successful Navy Submarine Personnel

This study evaluated the personality characteristics of senior enlisted and occupationally successful Navy submarine personnel. One hundred subjects completed the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP). Results indicated that the traits of detachment, propriety, and workaholism were most descriptive of the sample. Thirty-seven percent met SNAP criteria for a personality disorder, typically antisocial, obsessive-compulsive, or avoidant. The results are discussed in terms of adaptation to environmental demands aboard submarines. Suggestions for further research are offered.