Scarlet Macaw Ara Macao Research Articles

Making inferences about non-detection observations to improve occurrence predictions in Venezuelan Psittacidae

SummaryThe global decline in psittacid populations highlights the need for monitoring programmes that allow us to estimate the level of confidence that can be placed in a non-detection observation in order to assess changes in range status. We used the detection/non-detection records for 26 psittacid species detected during the first national bird monitoring programme in Venezuela carried out in 2010 by the Neotropical Biodiversity Mapping Initiative. We fitted occupancy models and evaluate the suitability of the data to explain the lack of detections given the current sampling effort, and the expected occurrence probabilities due to environmental conditions (conditional probability of occurrence; ΨCONDL). We were able to fit reliable models for 13 of the 26 species detected. For Green-rumped ParrotletForpus passerinus, Blue-headed ParrotPionus menstrus, and Orange-winged AmazonAmazona amazonica, the probability of detection (p) under the current sampling effort was too low (> 0.2) in areas where environmental conditions would imply high ΨCONDL(< 0.3). This suggests that sampling effort should be increased to generate reliable estimations of occurrence. In contrast, for Scarlet MacawAra macao, Yellow-crowned AmazonAmazona ochrocephala, Orange-chinned ParakeetBrotogeris jugularisand Brown-throated ParakeetEupsittula pertinaxthe model estimated highp(< 0.3) and low ΨCONDL(> 0.2), suggesting that the species are reliably detected and better models could be obtained by including other predictive variables related to temporal use of resources and habitat heterogeneity. To improve the effectiveness of parrot monitoring programme in Neotropical countries, we suggest increasing the sampling effort, developing several surveys per year, and including variables related with temporal use of resources and habitat heterogeneity.

Genetic analysis reveals strong phylogeographical divergences within the Scarlet Macaw Ara macao

Scarlet Macaws Ara macao have the largest geographical distribution of any Neotropical psittacine, occupying a variety of lowland forest habitats from Mexico to Brazil. Two subspecies, Ara macao macao and Ara macao cyanoptera, are currently recognized based on wing chord length and plumage coloration, with formal descriptions suggesting genetic introgression in southern Nicaragua and northern Costa Rica. The present study aimed to investigate the extent of genetic diversification within A. macao by analysing mitochondrial sequence data from contemporary and historical samples. Phylogenetic reconstruction and population aggregation analysis confirmed two distinct phylogeographical groups, with a high degree of intraspecific genetic structure and no evidence of a putative hybrid zone. Whole mitochondrial genome sequencing further confirmed substantial divergence (~ 1.8%) between the cyanoptera and macao lineages. These results demonstrate a separation of A. macao into two distinct evolutionary entities and highlight a non‐uniform distribution of intraspecific diversity, suggesting current conservation designations may warrant re‐evaluation.

The phylogenetic position of the extinct Cuban Macaw Ara tricolor based on complete mitochondrial genome sequences

The Cuban Macaw Ara tricolor was a species of macaw native to Cuba and Isla de la Juventud in the Caribbean that became extinct in the 1860s. Morphologically, it was similar to, but distinctively smaller than, the large red macaws – Scarlet Macaw Ara macao and Red‐and‐green Macaw Ara chloropterus. A close affinity with the Scarlet Macaw has been suggested based on plumage similarities. In this study we use complete mitochondrial genome sequences to examine the phylogenetic position of the Cuban Macaw. Our results do not indicate a sister‐species relationship with the Scarlet Macaw but place the Cuban Macaw as sister to the two red species and the two large green macaws, the Military Macaw Ara militaris and the Great Green Macaw Ara ambiguus. Divergence estimates suggests that the Cuban Macaw separated from this group approximately 4 million years ago.

Nest site selection and efficacy of artificial nests for breeding success of Scarlet Macaws Ara macao macao in lowland Peru

Psittacidae (parrots) have the most threatened species of any bird family in the world. Most parrots are obligate secondary cavity nesters, and can be limited in their breeding success by the availability and quality of nest hollows. However, nesting opportunities for parrots can be increased by provision of artificial nest boxes. The Tambopata Macaw Project has been studying the breeding ecology and natural history of the Scarlet Macaw Ara macao macao in the south-eastern Peruvian Amazon for over 20 years by monitoring natural nest hollows and two types of artificial nest (wooden and PVC). We present data for breeding success in natural and artificial nests over 12 consecutive breeding seasons. The aims of this study were to: (a) determine the nesting requirements and reproductive success of breeding macaws; and, (b) compare the efficacy of the two types of artificial nests and natural nest cavities. Our data showed a high rate of reoccupation of successful nests in consecutive years and that nests in artificial and natural nests had very similar reproductive parameters. Our results indicate that artificial nest types can be used by conservation managers seeking to assist A. macao populations where nest hollows are in short supply, and that artificial nests can contribute important data to natural history studies of species where access to natural nests is limited.

A study of the parrot trade in Peru and the potential importance of internal trade for threatened species

SummaryDuring a period of 12 months in 2007 and 2008, a study of the parrot trade within Peru was carried out. In this study, 20 main wildlife markets were visited in eight cities in order to estimate the number of parrot species and individuals traded legally and illegally within a year. The study also gathered extra information from vendors and customers through informal interviews about the trade process. Additionally we contracted one person in two markets between February and May 2008 to monitor how many species and individuals entered the trade. During the study, four threatened species (the ‘Endangered’ Gray-cheeked Parakeet Brotogeris pyrrhoptera, the ‘Vulnerable’ Military Macaw Ara militaris, the ‘Vulnerable’ Yellow-faced Parrotlet Forpus xanthops and the ‘Near Threatened’ Red-masked Parakeet Aratinga erythrogenys) and one additional species listed in CITES Appendix 1 (Scarlet Macaw Ara macao) were found being traded. Thirty-four species were recorded in total, 33 of which are native to Peru (representing 63% of the 52 known Peruvian parrot species) and one of which (Monk Parakeet Myiopsitta monachus) is native to Bolivia and Argentina. Our results show that even for the seven species which can be legally traded in Peru, the number of individuals being traded can greatly exceed the numbers that can officially be traded legally. We directly counted 4,722 parrots for sale and using a measured detection rate of 3% we estimate a total market size in the cities surveyed of between 80,000 and 90,000 individuals. As our surveys sampled only 8 out of Peru’s 24 departmental capitals and there are also other large cities, these numbers are likely to represent only a part of the total trade in Peru. To the best of our knowledge this is one of the first detailed studies of the internal trade in a source country for the international parrot trade. Our results suggest that such internal trade is likely to be a significant conservation issue that has previously been largely overlooked.

Response of a Scarlet Macaw Ara macao population to conservation practices in Costa Rica

The Central Pacific Conservation Area contains one of Costa Rica's two viable, but threatened Scarlet Macaw Ara macao populations. For 14 years (1990–2003), we monitored the size of this population. Non-linear models fitted to 1990–1994 observations revealed seasonal and long-term changes in population size. The peak of annual population size occurred in August, with a cyclic range of about 90 birds between the lowest and highest points of the annual cycle. The best model also revealed a decline in population size of approximately eight birds counted per year or 4% of the total population per year (1990–1994). Young-to-adult ratios calculated for the month of August during this study fluctuated around a baseline that averaged 6.1% a year (1990–2003). These ratios exceeded 8% for three different years (1995, 1996 and 2000). All three of these “good” recruitment years occurred after management began, and two of them were associated with zealous anti-poaching efforts that ultimately could not be sustained. After intensive management practices began in 1995, the August counts increased by about 37 individuals in two years (1995–1996) to an average 243 individuals, which remained almost constant up to 2003. Management practices included creation of a local conservation organization that coordinated environmental education, artificial nest construction, networking among stakeholders and with governmental authorities, and artificial and natural nest protection. Although Scarlet Macaw conservation efforts have been inconsistent since 1997, our study demonstrates that collaborative conservation by local stakeholders increased the population of this threatened species in 1995–1996, and from 1996 to present the population has sustained itself.

Daily activity budget of captive and released Scarlet macawAra macaoat Playa San Josecito Release Site, Costa Rica

Baseline data for 17 behaviours grouped into six categories were collected for ten captive and nine soft-released Scarlet macaws Ara macao, in order to analyse daily activity budgets. Most of the birds were captive-bred and hand-reared. The captive birds spent less time on Socializing and Feeding behaviours than the released birds but spent more time on Maintenance behaviour and No Activity. The observation protocol developed here is a useful tool for monitoring the birds during pre-release training and, once released, to determine quantitatively whether a bird was properly prepared for survival in the wild.

The Chimalapas Region, Oaxaca, Mexico: a high-priority region for bird conservation in Mesoamerica

The Chimalapas region, in eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, holds lowland rainforests, tropical dry forests, and cloud forests typical of the Neotropics, as well as montane pine and pine-oak forests more typical of the Nearctic. Totaling more than 600,000 ha, much of the region is forested, and in a good state of preservation. The Chimalapas avifauna is by far the most diverse for any region of comparable size in the country, totalling at least 464 species in the region as a whole (with more than 300 species in the lowland rainforest) representing 44% of the bird species known from Mexico. Within the region, the humid Atlantic lowlands hold 317 species, the montane regions 113 species, and the southern dry forested lowlands 216 species. Important species present in the region include Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja and several other large eagles, Black Penelopina nigra and probably Horned Oreophasis derbianus Guans, Scarlet Macaw Ara macao, Cinnamon-tailed Sparrow Aimophila sumichrasti, Rose-bellied Bunting Passerina rositae, and Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno. The area holds immense lowland rainforests and cloud forests that rank among the largest and best preserved in all of Mesoamerica, including a complete lowland-to-highland continuum, with entire watersheds preserved more or less intact.

Genetic diversity of scarlet macaws Ara macao in reintroduction studies for threatened populations in Costa Rica

During the last 40 years, the once abundant and widespread Ara macao population in Costa Rica has been reduced to two major groups and one remnant group, which survive isolated from one another within three protected areas. To maintain the genetic diversity of one of these populations located within the Carara Biological Reserve, which is threatened by frequent poaching, an aviculture program was initiated for repatriation. This study is concerned with monitoring the genetic diversity of confiscated birds to use for this reintroduction. Sixteen confiscated animals were analyzed by DNA fingerprinting with oligonucleotide probes, which detect tandem repeats of the nucleotide sequences CAC and GGAT in microsatellites. Birds were sexed by amplification of a non-repetitive DNA sequence region from the female W chromosome. Our data reveal a high genetic diversity among these individuals, with average band-sharing coefficients of 0.058 for the CAC repeat and 0.066 for GGAT. Only two pairs show a closer relationship. Our results suggest that there is still considerable genetic diversity within Costa Rican scarlet macaw populations.