Scapular Measurements Research Articles

Variations in the Anatomic Morphology of the Scapular Spine and Implications on Fracture After Reverse Shoulder Arthroplasty.

This study evaluates the role of anatomic scapular morphology in acromion and scapular spine fracture (SSAF) risk after reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA). Twelve scapular measurements were captured based on pilot study data, including scapular width measurements at the acromion (Z1), middle of the scapular spine (Z2), and medial to the first major angulation (Z3). Measurements were applied to 3D-CT scans from patients who sustained SSAF after RSA (SSAF group) and compared with those who did not (control group). Measurements were done by four investigators, and the intraclass correlation coefficient was calculated. Regression analysis determined trends in fracture incidence. One hundred forty-nine patients from two separate surgeons (J.L., A.M.) were matched by age and surgical indication of whom 51 sustained SSAF after reverse shoulder arthroplasty. Average ages for the SSAF and control cohorts were 78.6 and 72.1 years, respectively. Among the SSAF group, 15 were Levy type I, 26 Levy type II, and 10 Levy type 3 fractures. The intraclass correlation coefficient of Z1, Z2, and Z3 measurements was excellent (0.92, 0.92, and 0.94, respectively). Zone 1 and 3 measurements for the control group were 18.6 ± 3.7 mm and 3.2 ± 1.0 mm, respectively, compared with 22.5 ± 5.9 mm and 2.0 ± 0.70 mm in the SSAF group, respectively. The fracture group trended toward larger Z1 and smaller Z3 measurements. The average scapular spine proportion (SSP), Z1/Z3, was significantly greater in the control 6.20 ± 1.80 versus (12.60 ± 6.30; P < 0.05). Regression analysis showed a scapular spine proportion of ≤5 was associated with a fracture risk <5%, whereas an SSP of 9.2 correlated with a 50% fracture risk. Patients with a thicker acromions (Z1) and thinner medial scapular spines (Z3) have increased fracture risk. Understanding anatomic scapular morphology may allow for better identification of high-risk patients preoperatively.

Three-dimensional scapular orientation: a comparison of glenohumeral osteoarthritis and cuff tear arthropathy to the unaffected shoulder

BackgroundScapular orientation may play an important role in preoperative planning for shoulder arthroplasty; however, there is currently no defined method for producing standardized three-dimensional measurements. The purpose of this study is to develop a reproducible measurement system of scapular orientation and to evaluate differences between unaffected shoulders and those with diagnoses of primary glenohumeral osteoarthritis (GHOA) and rotator cuff tear arthropathy (CTA). MethodsPatients receiving computed tomography scans for preoperative shoulder arthroplasty planning were enrolled prospectively. Thin sliced axial images that included bilateral shoulders and the thorax were reformatted. The pathology of the bilateral glenohumeral joints was defined as GHOA, CTA, or unaffected. Scapular orientation was defined relative to the thorax using three-dimensional models to define the protraction, rotation, and tilt angles in the supine position. Univariate analysis was performed to compare demographics and scapular measurements between patients with GHOA, CTA, and unaffected shoulder pathology. Multivariate linear regression analysis was performed to identify independent predictors of scapular orientation. ResultsOne hundred fifty-eight shoulders, comprising 79 patients were included. Twenty-seven percent (n = 21/79) of patients had an unaffected contralateral shoulder. Shoulders with GHOA had significantly greater downward scapular rotation (-14 ± 7 degrees) than both unaffected shoulders (-8 ± 7 degrees; P < .001) and those with CTA (-7 ± 8 degrees; P < .001). Increased downward scapular rotation was predicted by a shoulder pathology of GHOA in multivariate analysis (beta -7.09; P < .001). The magnitude of side-to-side difference was greatest in scapular rotation for patients with GHOA compared to CTA, with no significant differences in tilt or protraction. ConclusionScapular rotation in the supine position varies by shoulder pathology, with greater downward rotation seen in patients with primary GHOA. These findings underscore the need for awareness of scapular orientation in addition to glenoid morphology when evaluating and planning shoulder arthroplasty cases.

Quantitative Analysis of Scapular Winging Using Moire Topography.

Moire Topography (MT) is a non-invasive technique that uses patterned light projection and has been used to qualitatively characterize scapular winging. The purpose of the present study was to quantitatively characterize scapular winging using a novel method of MT. A total of 20 shoulders in ten healthy subjects were analyzed. The mean age for subjects was 27.9 ± 1.0 years and mean BMI was 22.8 ± 2.8. Two scenarios were used to simulate scapular winging: Group 1) the hand-behind-back (HBB) position and Group 2) weighted scaption after a muscle fatigue protocol. A calibration object was used to validate the MT method. This was followed by a use of a control object with known dimensions (OKD) to evaluate subjects. The measured height (z) of the OKD with MT, as determined by the known dimensions of the OKD, was then compared to the scapula winging in Groups 1 and 2. Scapular winging was characterized by measuring the height or prominence (z) of the scapula. There were significant differences between the baseline scapular measurements and scapular winging measurements in both Group 1, 4.0 cm ± 1.3 (P=0.0004), and Group 2, 3.7 ± 1.6 (P=0.0178). Scapular winging was most prominent with the hand in the highest position on the back in Group 1 and at lower degrees of scaption (<60 degrees) in Group 2. Quantitative characterization of scapular winging was achieved using a novel method using MT. Scapular winging was found at lower degrees of shoulder elevation. Future applications of this technique should focus on characterizing scapular winging in multiple planes in real-time and in patients with known shoulder pathology.

Variability in the distance between the suprascapular notch with the spine of the scapulae and the acromion.

The suprascapular notch lies in the superior border of the scapula and is a passageway for the suprascapular nerve that is sensory to the shoulder joint. Suprascapular nerve block involves injection of local anaesthetic into the suprascapular notch, either ultrasound guided or blind, using the spine of scapula and/or the medial border of the acromion as surface landmarks. To investigate the anatomic variations that exist between the distance of the notch from the spine of scapula and acromion. Ninety-two dry scapulae were measured with a digital calliper for their length of the spine, distance between the midpoint of the spine and base of the suprascapular notch and distance between the medial border of the acromion and the base of the suprascapular notch. These measurements were compared for variations in the scapular bony landmarks, the spine and the acromion to determine the site for the injection. Measurement reliability was assessed by intraclass correlation, Cronbach's alpha being 0.99, 0.97 and 0.91 for length of spine, distance from spine and distance from acromion respectively. The distance from the acromion had less variation in measurement (3.73 ± 0.42cm) but a flatter distribution when compared to distance from the spine of the scapula (3.32 ± 0.39cm). Length of the spine of the scapula appeared not to influence either distance from the acromion or distance from the spine of scapula. There is potential for greater variability in placement of nerve blocks that use acromion as the bony reference. Key Points • Dry scapular measurement using electronic Vernier callipers is accurate (0.91-0.97). • There is potential for greater variability in placement of blind nerve blocks that use acromion as the bony reference to locate the suprascapular notch.

Does calibration pose improve scapular kinematic repeatability in functional tasks?

Tracking scapular motion can be challenging. More research is needed to determine the best practices for scapular measurement in multi-planar tasks. The purpose of this study was to compare the repeatability of scapular kinematics during a functional task protocol calculated from different calibration procedures. It was hypothesized that select poses would improve repeatability in specific tasks. The torso, humerus, and scapula were tracked with optical motion capture in two sessions for ten pain-free participants. Scapular calibrations were completed in five poses: neutral, maximum elevation, 90° abduction, hand to contralateral shoulder, and hand to back. Each participant completed eight functional tasks (Comb Hair, Wash Axilla, Tie Apron, Overhead Reach, Side Reach, Forward Transfer, Floor Lift, Overhead Lift). Scapular angles were calculated with five different calibration procedures and extracted at 30° increments of humeral elevation in each task. Mean difference, limits of agreement, intraclass correlations, and minimal detectable change (MDC) were calculated for each task and elevation level. The inclusion of different calibration poses did not markedly improve outcomes over the maximum elevation double calibration for most tasks. Using this calibration procedure, median MDCs were 10.0° for upward rotation, 13.7° for internal rotation, and 9.8° for tilt.

Stature estimation from the scapula measurements using 3D-volume rendering technique by regression equations in the Northern Indian population.

The present study assessed the correlation between the stature and scapular measurements from both sides in order to develop population-specific regression equations to estimate the stature from measurements of the scapula in a contemporary Northern Indian population individually for the left and right sides. A total of 597 cadavers underwent postmortem multidetector computed tomography and subsequent medicolegal autopsy in our department between August 2021 and August 2022. Two hundred samples (100 males and 100 females) were randomly collected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Six linear anthropometric measurements of the scapula from either side were measured using the 3D volume-rendered technique by an electronic cursor. Each anthropometric measurement showed a significant difference between males and females (p < 0.05). Regression analysis was applied to match the taken measurements against stature. The accuracy to predict stature ranged from 3.99 to 4.94 cm for males and from 4.49 to 5.27 cm for females, respectively. Left-sided measurements were better predictors of stature than the right side in both genders. The results of this study indicate that scapular measurements could be useful to estimate the stature of Northern Indian individuals, particularly in scenarios of disaster victim identification lacking long bones, which are considered to be better predictors to date.

Assigned sex estimation with the clavicle and scapula: A study in a Portuguese reference sample.

The estimation of biological sex is a critical step in the assessment of the biological profile of an anonymous skeletonized individual. In certain recovery circumstances, the most dimorphic skeletal areas, such as the pelvis, are absent or fragmented; in that case, other bones of the skeleton, including the clavicle and scapula, can be used to predict sex. The purpose of this research is to generate new models for the estimation of sex with clavicular and scapular measurements using a study-sample of 129 individuals with clavicle (65 males and 64 females) and 112 individuals with scapula (50 males and 62 females) from the Lisbon Identified Skeletal Collection (Portugal). A decision tree classifier (C4.5) and logistic regression (LR) were employed to create univariable and multivariable sex prediction models. Accuracy under cross-validation of the classification models is high (up to 93.8%), with minimal bias (<5%), particularly in the multivariable models. The proposed LR models facilitate the probabilistic estimation of biological sex, accounting for the significant overlap in the expression of sexual dimorphism.

A Morphometric and Morphological Analysis of Superior Border of Dry Scapulae

Aim: The recognition of the scapula anatomy and visible variations is important in surgical treatments and arthroscopic procedures in case of any diseases of the shoulder. The morphological and morphometric characteristics of the scapular notch on the superior margin are very important. Because compression of the suprascapular nerve extending inside the scapular notch causes entrapment neuropathy. Therefore, the present study was planned in order to contribute to us as well as practitioners about morphometric and morphological characteristics of the superior margin of the scapula.Materials and Methods: Morphometric measurements (SL: scapula length; SW: scapula width; SI: scapula index; STD: superior transverse diameter of the scapular notch; MTD: medial transverse diameter of the scapular notch; VD: vertical diameter) were performed on 90 (50 left; 40 right) scapulae of Turkish population without unknown age and gender. Furthermore, the superior scapular margin and the scapular notch were categorized through observational classification as well as measurement. Results: The mean scapular width was detected 98.87±7.71 mm on the right and 94.38±13.01 mm on the left. The scapula index was measured 67.51±4.40 mm on the right and 63.80±8.29 mm on the left. The SL, STD, and VT was larger on the left; the SW, SI, and MTD were larger on the right. The difference between right and left for the SW and SI measurements was statistically significant (p&amp;lt;0.005). The most common scapular notch appearance, the U shape (64.4%) was the most common scapular notch shape as VD&amp;gt;MTD (%48.9). The most common superior margin type was moderately oblique (41.1%). Conclusion: We believe that the data obtained would be helpful for orthopedic surgeons in intramedullary nailing and radiologists in the differential diagnosis of some osteolytic lesions in that region. Furthermore, scapula measurements would help to identify the gender and race in forensic medicine and anthropology.

Morphometric Examination of Scapula to Determine Sexual Dimorphism

Background and Aim: Determining the sex of an individual is possible when we apply appropriate statisticalmethods using scapular measurements. Determination of sex using scapular measurements is very useful inmedicolegal cases, natural disasters and in certain circumstances in which traditionally used bones of skeleton areeither absent or fragmented. This study aims to assess sexual dimorphism for identification purposes.Material and Methods: This study was conducted using 40 adult skeletons (25 males and 15 females) with closedepiphysis having intact and well-preserved scapulae. Scapulae were measured in millimetre for MSH, MSB, GCHand GCB with the help of the sliding calliper. For all tests, confidence level and level of significance were set at95% and 5% respectively.Results: There was a highly significant difference (P &lt; 0.001) between male and female for the mean value of allmeasurements. So it indicates the existence of strong sexual dimorphism in scapula.Conclusion: Geometric morphometrics techniques feature promising results in the evaluation of skeletal sexualdimorphism, including in the size and shape of the scapula. The results of this study are very useful for sexdetermination in forensic anthropological and medicolegal cases where skull and pelvic bones are unavailable ordamaged. The present study has confirmed that gender can be determined with high accuracy by use of scapularmeasurements.

Rehabilitation for atraumatic shoulder instability in circus arts performers: delivery via telehealth.

The Watson Instability Program (WIP1) is current best evidence for conservative management of atraumatic shoulder instability, but it is unknown if this program can be effectively delivered via tele-consultation. The purpose of this longitudinal pre-post intervention study was to determine the effects of the WIP1 on patient-reported outcome measures, scapular position, shoulder strength, and handstand stability in student circus performers with atraumatic shoulder instability when delivered via tele-consultation. Student circus performers aged between 15 and 35 years from the National Institute of Circus Arts were recruited. A 12-week shoulder exercise program was delivered via tele-consultation during the Melbourne, Australia COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) lockdown. The primary outcome measures were the Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index score and the Melbourne Instability Shoulder Scale score. Secondary outcomes measures included the Orebro Musculoskeletal Pain Questionnaire, the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia, and physical assessment measures including strength via handheld dynamometry, scapular position using an inclinometer, and handstand stability via center-of-pressure fluctuation. Patient-reported outcomes were collected at baseline and 6-week, 12-week, 6-month, and 9-month time points, and physical outcomes were measured at baseline and 9-month time points. A repeated-measures mixed model (with effect sizes [ESs] and 95% confidence intervals [CIs]) was used to analyze patient-reported outcomes, handstand data, strength, and scapular measures. Significance was set at P < .05. Twenty-three student circus arts performers completed the study. Significant improvements were found in both Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index scores (effect size [ES], 0.79 [95% CI, 0.31-1.33] at 6 weeks; ES, 1.08 [95% CI, 0.55-1.6] at 12 weeks; ES, 1.17 [95% CI, 0.62-1.78] at 6 months; and ES, 1.31 [95% CI, 0.74-1.95] at 9 months; P < .001) and Melbourne Instability Shoulder Scale scores (ES, 0.70 [95% CI, 0.22-1.22] at 6 weeks; ES, 0.83 [95% CI, 0.34-1.37] at 3 months; ES, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.46-1.54] at 6 months; and ES, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.43-1.50] at 9 months; P < .001), as well as Orebro Musculoskeletal Pain Questionnaire scores at all follow-up time points. The Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia scores reached significance at 6 weeks and 12 weeks. Following rehabilitation, we found statistically significant increases in shoulder strength in all positions tested and increased scapular upward rotation measured at end-of-range abduction, as well as during loaded external rotation. The affected arm showed greater instability than the unaffected arm with a significant intervention effect on the affected arm showing a greater consistent anterior-posterior movement pattern. In a group of circus performers with atraumatic shoulder instability, treatment with the WIP1 via telehealth resulted in clinically and statistically significant improvements in shoulder symptoms and function.

Does the Application of a Lycra Arm Sleeve Change Shoulder Biomechanics in People With Stroke?—A Preliminary Study

ABSTRACT Introduction Glenohumeral subluxation (GHS) is reported in up to 81% of patients with stroke. Our previous studies found that a Lycra sleeve can reduce acromion-greater tuberosity (AGT) distance (used for assessment of GHS) in people with chronic stroke (n = 5). In a recent study on able-bodied people (n = 31), we report reduction in AGT, change in scapula measurements, and change in muscle activity after the application of Lycra sleeve. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Lycra sleeves on the AGT distance, muscle activity around the shoulder region, and scapular position in people with stroke. Method People with stroke who gave informed consent were recruited. Measurements were taken before and immediately after application of the sleeve. Portable diagnostic ultrasound, electromyography, and a tape measure were used to measure AGT distance, muscle activity (biceps, triceps, deltoid, and supraspinatus), and position of the scapula, respectively. Results Six participants with a mean age of 53 ± 8 years were recruited. There was a mean reduction of 0.13 cm (95% confidence interval, −0.01 to 0.28 cm) in AGT distance measurements but this was not statistically significant (t = 3.503, df = 5, P = .062). The inferior scapula measurements showed a mean reduction of 1 cm (95% confidence interval, 0.07-1.92 cm) and this was statistically significant (t = 2.781; df = 5, P = .039) when compared without and with sleeve application. Conclusions The application of Lycra arm sleeves did not significantly reduce the AGT distance but altered scapula mechanics by putting it in a mechanically advantaged position in a small sample of people with chronic stroke. A properly designed definitive trial would be required to confirm the effectiveness of the Lycra sleeve in reducing GHS in people with both acute and chronic stroke. Clinical Relevance Lycra sleeve may have potential to alter biomechanics and influence neuromuscular activity in the arm.

Sex estimation using scapular measurements: discriminant function analysis in a modern Italian population

ABSTRACT Accurate sex estimation of skeletal remains is of critical importance in medico-legal investigations. Despite a significant number of metric sex estimation techniques being developed over recent years, minimal research has been conducted on the suitability of the scapulae. The aim of this study was therefore to establish population-specific discriminant functions from six scapular measurements from the left and right scapulae of 180 contemporary individuals (94 males and 86 females) from the modern and documented CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection. The measurements comprise the maximum morphological length and breadth of the scapula, the maximum length and breadth of the glenoid cavity and the maximum width of the acromion process and coracoid process. All measurements were sexually dimorphic, as a significant mean difference (p < 0.001) in size was found. All direct and stepwise functions, apart from one outperformed (~83- 96%) univariate ones (~65 – 86%). The maximum width of the coracoid process measurement performed the worst, and therefore should be used with caution. Bilateral asymmetry was observed in three male and three female measurements. High accuracy rates combined with high levels of inter- and intra-observer agreements (R > 0.995) indicate that this technique is suitable for estimating the sex of skeletal remains.

Reliability of scapular upward rotation and anterior-posterior tilt measurements using a modified digital inclinometer in patients with subacromial impingement syndrome.

Reliable scapular upward rotation and anterior-posterior tilt data are required for patients with subacromial impingement syndrome (SIS). Only a few studies have explored the reliability of such measurements derived using a modified inclinometer. To determine the relative and absolute reliability of scapular upward rotation and anterior-posterior tilt measurements derived using a modified digital inclinometer in patients with SIS. Seventeen SIS patients were assessed twice within 1 week. We determined the relative and absolute measurement reliability by calculating the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), standard error of measurement (SEM), and minimal clinically important difference (MCID). Both intra- and interrater reliability were determined. The intra-rater reliability (both measurements) was high (0.72-0.88), and the interrater ICC was high to excellent (0.72-0.98). Clinically acceptable SEM and MCID values were obtained for scapular upward rotation (SEM: 4.28-9.33∘, MCID: 5.1-11.3∘) and anterior-posterior tilt (SEM: 3.72-7.55∘, MCID: 2.5-10.8∘). Measurements of scapular upward rotation and anterior-posterior tilt using a modified digital inclinometer reliably reveal scapular position and kinematics in patients with SIS.

Reliability and Validity of a Clinical Assessment Tool for Measuring Scapular Motion in All 3 Anatomical Planes.

A single clinical assessment device that can be used to objectively measure scapular motion in each anatomical plane is not currently available. The development of a novel electric goniometer would allow scapular motion in all 3 anatomical planes to be quantified. To investigate the reliability and validity of an electric goniometer for measuring scapular motion in each anatomical plane during upper extremity elevation. Cross-sectional study. Laboratory. Sixty participants (29 women, 31 men; age = 30 ± 14 years, height = 1.73 ± 0.10 m, mass = 75.32 ± 16.90 kg) recruited from the general population. An electric goniometer was used to record clinical measurements of scapular position at rest and total arc of motion (excursion) during active upper extremity elevation in 2 testing sessions separated by several days. Measurements were recorded independently by 2 examiners. In 1 session, scapular motion was recorded simultaneously using a 14-camera, 3-dimensional optical motion-capture system. Reliability analysis included examination of clinical measurements for scapular position at rest and excursion during each condition. Both the intrarater reliability between testing sessions and the interrater reliability recorded in the same session were assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs [2,3]). The criterion validity was examined by comparing the mean excursion values of each condition recorded using the electric goniometer and the 3-dimensional optical motion-capture system. Validity was assessed by evaluating the average difference and root mean square error. The between-sessions intrarater reliability was moderate to good (ICC [2,3] range = 0.628-0.874). The within-session interrater reliability was moderate to excellent (ICC [2,3] range = 0.545-0.912). The average difference between total excursion values recorded using the electric goniometer and the 3-dimensional optical motion-capture system ranged from -7° to 4°, and the root mean square error ranged from 7° to 10°. The reliability of scapular measurements was best when a standard operating procedure was used. The electric goniometer provided an accurate measurement of scapular excursions in all 3 anatomical planes during upper extremity elevation.

Does the Application of a Lycra Arm Sleeve Change Shoulder Biomechanics in Young Healthy People? A Mechanistic Study

ABSTRACT Introduction Glenohumeral subluxation (GHS) is commonly reported in people with stroke. Lycra sleeves provide a compressive and supportive effect, influencing the neuromuscular activity in the affected body segment. A recent study reported reduction in GHS (acromion-greater tuberosity [AGT] distance) after application of Lycra arm sleeve; however, its mechanism on the shoulder region as a whole is unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate if application of a Lycra sleeve changes the AGT distance, muscle activity around the shoulder region, and scapular position. Methods Healthy participants aged older than 18 years were recruited. Measurements were taken before and immediately after application of the sleeve. Portable diagnostic ultrasound, surface electromyography, and a tape measure were used to measure AGT distance, muscle activity (biceps, triceps, deltoid, and supraspinatus), and position of the scapula, respectively. Results Thirty-one participants (11 men, 20 women) with mean age 25 ± 10 years participated. Paired test showed significant mean reduction of 0.12 cm (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.07–0.16 cm) in AGT distance measurements (t = 5.112, df = 30, P = 0.003) and scapula measurements (0.3 cm; 95% CI, 0.04–0.4 cm; t = 2.501; df = 30, P &lt; 0.01) when compared without and with sleeve application. Conclusions Future research should investigate the effects of the Lycra sleeve on people with GHS in the different phases of rehabilitation.

Intra-rater and inter-rater reliability of scapular asymmetry measurements in male professional volleyball players

Intra-rater and inter-rater reliability of scapular asymmetry measurements in male professional volleyball players

Changes in Pectoral Muscle Volume During Subacute Period after Radiation Therapy for Breast Cancer: A Retrospective up to 4-year Follow-up Study

Radiotherapy (RT) is an effective treatment for managing breast cancer patients with breast conserving surgery, but patients may experience radiation-induced shoulder problems. Even though the course of shoulder morbidity is unknown, pectoral muscle changes after radiotherapy can be a major cause of shoulder problems. Twenty-two patients treated with RT for unilateral breast cancer were included in the study. All patients underwent serial computed tomography (CT) imaging before and immediately after RT, as well as 2 months, 6 months, 2 years, and 3–4 years after RT. These CT scans were used to compare muscle volume changes. The pectoral muscle volume and muscle volume surrounding the scapular measurement was performed using 3D modelling after segmentation of the CT scans. In all patients, the pectoral muscle volume increased during the 2 months after RT, and there was continuous volume reduction from 2–48 months after RT. Changes in muscle volume ratio over time were analysed by repeated measure ANOVA and it was found that there was a significant change in the pectoral muscle volume (p < 0.001) from Just before RT and Immediately after RT at 2 month after RT. On the other hand, the changes in the muscle volume of the surrounding scapular were not significant.

A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF SEXUAL DIMORPHISM OF SCAPULA BY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYSIAN POPULATION

Objective: Sex estimation is one of the crucial steps for human identification, which is evident in cases of commingled, eroded, and/or missing remains. When pelvis or skull are unavailable, scapula has been used as an alternative bone for determining sex. Besides, the scapula was shown to be population-specific in several studies. Limited dry bone collections in Malaysia have led to various recommendations of virtual anthropology studies of bone in human identification. The aims of this study were to investigate the sexual dimorphism of the scapula using three-dimensional (3D) computed tomography (CT) imaging and to generate population-specific equations for sex determination in the Malaysian population.Methods: A total of 66 CT thorax images of 33 males and 33 females were taken. Morphological breadth (MB) and morphological length (ML) on bilateral scapulae were measured on 3D CT reconstructed images. Independent t-test and discriminant function analysis (DFA) were performed for analysis.Results: Results revealed that both parameters showed sexual dimorphism of scapula but displayed no difference between the right and left scapulae. DFA showed that MB and ML had high accuracy for sex estimation. The equations were highly accurate when both parameters were used in combination, followed by MB only and ML only, in that sequence.Conclusion: In brief, scapula measurements may be useful for forensic assessment of sex in the Malaysian population.

A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF SEXUAL DIMORPHISM OF SCAPULA BY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY IN THE MALAYSIAN POPULATION

Objective: Sex estimation is one of the crucial steps for human identification, which is evident in cases of commingled, eroded, and/or missing remains. When pelvis or skull are unavailable, scapula has been used as an alternative bone for determining sex. Besides, the scapula was shown to be population-specific in several studies. Limited dry bone collections in Malaysia have led to various recommendations of virtual anthropology studies of bone in human identification. The aims of this study were to investigate the sexual dimorphism of the scapula using three-dimensional (3D) computed tomography (CT) imaging and to generate population-specific equations for sex determination in the Malaysian population.Methods: A total of 66 CT thorax images of 33 males and 33 females were taken. Morphological breadth (MB) and morphological length (ML) on bilateral scapulae were measured on 3D CT reconstructed images. Independent t-test and discriminant function analysis (DFA) were performed for analysis.Results: Results revealed that both parameters showed sexual dimorphism of scapula but displayed no difference between the right and left scapulae. DFA showed that MB and ML had high accuracy for sex estimation. The equations were highly accurate when both parameters were used in combination, followed by MB only and ML only, in that sequence.Conclusion: In brief, scapula measurements may be useful for forensic assessment of sex in the Malaysian population.

A three-dimensional reconstruction of the scapula in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes)

In the last years multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) images were used in morphometric measurement of the scapula. The present study was aimed to reveal morphometrical aspects and morphometric differences between sexes regarding the scapula via three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction performed by using MDCT images of the fox scapula. Twelve adult red foxes (6 each of male and female) were used for this study. The high resolution images of the scapula were obtained by using a general diagnostic MDCT. The images obtained by MDCT were stacked and overlaid to reconstruct the 3D model of the scapula by using 3D modeling software (Mimics 13.1). Some morphometric measurements were taken from the reconstructed models of the scapula. The statistical analysis of data was performed for both sexes. Based on the 3D reconstructed scapula, the differences of the scapular measurements between male and female red fox were statistically significant (p less than 0.05). Some morphometrical differences of the scapula were revealed in both sexes of red fox. These results were compared with other studies in the literature and they emphasize the morphologic diversities among species. This study may contribute to improve the knowledge related to the anatomy of the red fox.