Saturated Sediments Research Articles

Structure and seismogenic properties of the Mentawai segment of the Sumatra subduction zone revealed by local earthquake traveltime tomography

On 12 September 2007, an Mw8.4 earthquake occurred within the southern section of the Mentawai segment of the Sumatra subduction zone, where the subduction thrust had previously ruptured in 1833 and 1797. Traveltime data obtained from a temporary local seismic network, deployed between December 2007 and October 2008 to record the aftershocks of the 2007 event, was used to determine two‐dimensional (2‐D) and three‐dimensional (3‐D) velocity models of the Mentawai segment. The seismicity distribution reveals significant activity along the subduction interface and within two clusters in the overriding plate either side of the forearc basin. The downgoing slab is clearly distinguished by a dipping region of highVp (8.0 km/s), which can be a traced to ∼50 km depth, with an increased Vp/Vs ratio (1.75 to 1.90) beneath the islands and the western side of the forearc basin, suggesting hydrated oceanic crust. Above the slab, a shallow continental Moho of less than 30 km depth can be inferred, suggesting that the intersection of the continental mantle with the subducting slab is much shallower than the downdip limit of the seismogenic zone despite localized serpentinization being present at the toe of the mantle wedge. The outer arc islands are characterized by low Vp (4.5–5.8 km/s) and high Vp/Vs (greater than 2.0), suggesting that they consist of fluid saturated sediments. The very low rigidity of the outer forearc contributed to the slow rupture of the Mw 7.7 Mentawai tsunami earthquake on 25 October 2010.

Sand box experiments to evaluate the influence of subsurface temperature probe design on temperature based water flux calculation

Abstract. Quantification of subsurface water fluxes based on the one dimensional solution to the heat transport equation depends on the accuracy of measured subsurface temperatures. The influence of temperature probe setup on the accuracy of vertical water flux calculation was systematically evaluated in this experimental study. Four temperature probe setups were installed into a sand box experiment to measure temporal highly resolved vertical temperature profiles under controlled water fluxes in the range of ±1.3 m d−1. Pass band filtering provided amplitude differences and phase shifts of the diurnal temperature signal varying with depth depending on water flux. Amplitude ratios of setups directly installed into the saturated sediment significantly varied with sand box hydraulic gradients. Amplitude ratios provided an accurate basis for the analytical calculation of water flow velocities, which matched measured flow velocities. Calculated flow velocities were sensitive to thermal properties of saturated sediment and to temperature sensor spacing, but insensitive to thermal dispersivity equal to solute dispersivity. Amplitude ratios of temperature probe setups indirectly installed into piezometer pipes were influenced by thermal exchange processes within the pipes and significantly varied with water flux direction only. Temperature time lags of small sensor distances of all setups were found to be insensitive to vertical water flux.

A marine electromagnetic survey to detect gas hydrate at Hydrate Ridge, Oregon

Gas hydrates are a potential energy resource and hazard for drilling and infrastructure, yet estimates of global volume vary by over three orders of magnitude. Hydrates are electrically resistive compared to water saturated sediment and so electromagnetic methods provide an additional tool to seismic surveys and drilling for determining hydrate saturations. A marine electromagnetic survey was carried out at Hydrate Ridge, Oregon, USA, with the aim of testing the use of controlled source electromagnetic (CSEM) and magnetotelluric (MT) methods to map gas hydrate and free gas below the gas hydrate stability zone. A 2-D CSEM inversion supports the scenario deduced from previous seismic and drilling results, which indicate two mechanisms of hydrate emplacement: a transport-dominated and reaction-dominated regime. A prominent resistive region of 2.5–4 ?m at a depth of about 130 mbsf, near the seismic bottom simulating reflector (BSR), suggests that 27 to 46 per cent of the bulk volume is filled with hydrate, depending on whether Archie's Law or the Hashin-Strikman bounds are used. This is representative of a reaction-dominated regime for hydrate emplacement, and where a significant low velocity zone exists based on a seismic tomography inversion, suggests large quantities of free gas below the BSR. Electrical resistivity logging while drilling (LWD) data show general agreement with the CSEM inversion model except for a CSEM-derived resistive region at seismic horizon A, known to transport free gas into the gas hydrate stability zone. Inversion of MT data collected simultaneously during the CSEM survey provides a complimentary low-resolution image of the shallow sediments and shows folding in the accretionary complex sediments similar to that imaged by a tomographic seismic velocity model.

Waterjet injection of powdered activated carbon for sediment remediation

Purpose In situ contaminated sediment remediation through the addition of activated carbon has been proven to be an effective remediation technique. An amendment delivery system was developed to accurately place and inject a powdered activated carbon slurry. The system was set up to deliver a series of discrete injections over a rectangular grid with the objective to deliver 3% carbon (C) by dry weight to an inundated saturated sediment at a maximum sediment depth of 30 cm.

English

Although recent construction of tailings dams has dramatically decreased solids discharge rates, pyrite-dominated polymetallic sulfide mine tailings persist as the primary in-stream substrate of the upper Rio Pilcomayo, a crucial water resource in the arid Southeastern Bolivian highlands. Rio Tarapaya is a primary tributary of the upper Rio Pilcomayo that drains Potosi, Bolivia, where intensive hard rock mining and ore processing has occurred for five centuries. In conjunction with standard water quality testing, field leach tests were performed on saturated sediment within the active channel as well as unsaturated sediment deposited on the banks of the Rio Tarapaya during high- flow events. Results indicate that weathering of in-stream tailings is contributing to deleterious concentrations of various ecotoxic metals. Of special concern is the mobilization of metals and acidity with increases in water level, such as occurs at the onset of the rainy season. The highly seasonal, arid climate provides for long periods of mineral oxidation followed by large precipitation events which mobilize weathered oxidation products. The reactivity of the millions of tonnes of in-stream tailings in Rio Tarapaya suggests that the upper Rio Pilcomayo will remain severely degraded for the foreseeable future and remediation will continue to be a daunting task.

Constraints on the Permeability Structure of Alluvial Aquifers From the Poro-Elastic Inversion of Multifrequency P-Wave Sonic Velocity Logs

We have explored the possibility of obtaining first-order permeability estimates for saturated alluvial sediments based on the poro-elastic interpretation of the P-wave velocity dispersion inferred from sonic logs. Modern sonic logging tools designed for environmental and engineering applications allow one for P-wave velocity measurements at multiple emitter frequencies over a bandwidth covering 5 to 10 octaves. Methodological considerations indicate that, for saturated unconsolidated sediments in the silt to sand range and typical emitter frequencies ranging from approximately 1 to 30 kHz, the observable velocity dispersion should be sufficiently pronounced to allow one for reliable first-order estimations of the permeability structure. The corresponding predictions have been tested on and verified for a borehole penetrating a typical surficial alluvial aquifer. In addition to multifrequency sonic logs, a comprehensive suite of nuclear and electrical logs, an S-wave log, a litholog, and a limited number laboratory measurements of the permeability from retrieved core material were also available. This complementary information was found to be essential for parameterizing the poro-elastic inversion procedure and for assessing the uncertainty and internal consistency of corresponding permeability estimates. Our results indicate that the thus obtained permeability estimates are largely consistent with those expected based on the corresponding granulometric characteristics, as well as with the available evidence form laboratory measurements. These findings are also consistent with evidence from ocean acoustics, which indicate that, over a frequency range of several orders-of-magnitude, the classical theory of poro-elasticity is generally capable of explaining the observed P-wave velocity dispersion in medium- to fine-grained seabed sediments.

Internal structure and hydrological functions of an alpine proglacial moraine

AbstractUnderstanding groundwater processes in alpine watersheds is critical to understand the timing of water release and late‐season stream flow for both headwater and downstream environments. Moraines and talus features can play an important role in groundwater flow and storage processes in alpine watersheds, but neither process is well understood for these features. We examined the complex hydrogeological environment of a partially ice‐cored moraine in the Lake O'Hara watershed in the Canadian Rockies. Electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) and seismic refraction tomography delineated regions of buried ice and frozen and unfrozen moraine material. Seismic refraction data also clearly indicated the depth to bedrock, which varied primarily due to the thickness of the overlying moraine material. Water levels in a lake and several tarns on the moraine responded differently to inputs of rain, snowmelt, and glacier melt, indicating the different degree of hydrological connectivity of these features to the groundwater flow system in the moraine. Such differences reflect the effects of bedrock topography and the location and geometry of buried ice. Ground‐penetrating radar images and ERI indicated regions of perched groundwater and focused infiltration. The location of these regions appears to be controlled by buried ice. All geophysical and hydrological data suggest that a relatively thin (<5 m) layer of saturated sediments and/or fractured bedrock likely provides a major flow system within the moraine. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Experimental Study on Dam-Break Waves for Silted-Up Reservoirs

The overall dam-break phenomenon is currently well understood for reservoirs filled with water. However, many dams face serious problems of reservoir sedimentation. Thus, regarding risk management, the influence of a large amount of sediment in the reservoir on dam-break wave propagation is of great importance. Experimental investigations were performed to investigate the influence of the silting degree of reservoirs and grain size distribution on wave heights and velocities. Dam-break waves in silted-up reservoirs are the result of a two-phase flow formed by a layer of water over a layer of saturated sediments in which complex phenomena occur simultaneously. Sediments flow such as a viscous fluid from the dam breach until complete stoppage, and clear water flows over the sediments creating bed load transport. The final sediment deposition cone, the flow of the positive front, and maximum wave heights were studied. An empirical formula is proposed to describe the celerity of the positive wave front in the case of silted-up reservoirs.

Acoustic properties of natural gas hydrates and the geophysical assessment of the subsurface distribution of hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic.

Natural gas hydrates are a solid form of natural gas found in the deep water marine margins of continents and under permafrost in Arctic regions worldwide. They have been recognized as a very significant potential energy source in the future. They form under high pressure and low temperature. Hydrate saturated sediments are acoustically faster and slightly less dense than water saturated sediments, but much faster and denser than gas saturated sediments. These properties allow for the identification of marine hydrate saturated sediments that are underlain by gas saturated sediments. The resulting geophysical reflector, referred to as a bottom simulating reflector, or BSR, often mimics the seafloor in areas where geothermal gradient is laterally consistent. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement has used three-dimensional seismic data in the Gulf of Mexico and two-dimensional seismic data in the Atlantic to (1) map the distribution of BSRs, (2) drill six wells in the GOM with moderate to high hydrate saturations in sand reservoirs, and (3) assess the resource potential of hydrates.

Wave‐driven porewater and solute circulation through rippled elastic sediment under highly transient forcing

Lay AbstractWaves over permeable and porous sediment induce movement of water through the pores of the sediment. This leads to circulation of seawater infiltrating into the sediment and then eventually exfiltrated back into the sea. This porewater circulation is caused by pressure variations along the surface of the seabed due to the passing of waves. However, previous studies have considered pressure along the seabed as steadily varying. This is not the case when flow associated with waves is turbulent, which is practically all the time. Using advanced computational modeling tools that more explicitly represent pressure variations occurring at short time intervals and the physical response of sediment to these pressure fluctuations, this study shows that pressure variations occurring at short timescales not considered before enhances the circulation and exchange of water between the seabed and the ocean. This also leads to larger exchange fluxes of dissolved material in the water circulating through the sediment. Since the seabed host many chemical and ecological processes that depend on the delivery of fluids and their dissolved content, accurate estimation of the importance and the rate at which these chemical and ecological processes occur would require a closer inspection of the effects of short time pressure fluctuations induced by turbulence and waves.

Multifunctional Iron−Carbon Nanocomposites through an Aerosol-Based Process for the In Situ Remediation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

Spherical iron-carbon nanocomposites were developed through a facile aerosol-based process with sucrose and iron chloride as starting materials. These composites exhibit multiple functionalities relevant to the in situ remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (TCE). The distribution and immobilization of iron nanoparticles on the surface of carbon spheres prevents zerovalent nanoiron aggregation with maintenance of reactivity. The aerosol-based carbon microspheres allow adsorption of TCE, thus removing dissolved TCE rapidly and facilitating reaction by increasing the local concentration of TCE in the vicinity of iron nanoparticles. The strongly adsorptive property of the composites may also prevent release of any toxic chlorinated intermediate products. The composite particles are in the optimal range for transport through groundwater saturated sediments. Furthermore, those iron-carbon composites can be designed at low cost, the process is amenable to scale-up for in situ application, and the materials are intrinsically benign to the environment.

Pingos of the Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula Area, Northwest Territories

Most pingos have grown in residual ponds left behind by rapid lake drainage through erosion of ice-wedge polygon systems. The field studies (1969-78) have involved precise levelling of numerous bench marks, extensive drilling, detailed temperature measurements, installation of water pressure transducers below permafrost and water (ice) quality, soil, and many other analyses. Precise surveys have been carried out on 17 pingos for periods ranging from 3 to 9 years. The field results show that permafrost aggradation in saturated lake bottom sediments creates the high pore water pressures necessary for pingo growth. The subpermafrost water pressures frequently approach that of the total litho-static pressure of permafrost surrounding a pingo. The water pressure is often great enough to lift a pingo and intrude a sub-pingo water lens beneath it. The basal diameter of a pingo is established in early youth after which time the pingo tends to grow higher, rather than both higher and wider. The shutoff direction of freezing is from periphery to center. When growing pingos have both through going taliks and also permeable sediments at depth, water may be expelled downwards by pore water expulsion from freezing and consolidation from self loading on saturated sediments. Pingos can rupture from bursting of the sub-pingo water lens. Otherwise, pingo failure is at the top and periphery. Hydraulic fracturing is probably important in some pingo failures. Water loss from sub-pingo water lenses causes subsidence with the subsidence pattern being the mirror image of the growth pattern; i.e. greatest subsidence at the top. Small peripheral bulges may result from subsidence. Old pingos collapse from exposure of the ice core to melting by overburden rupture, by mass wasting, and by permafrost creep of the sides.

New Approaches for the Production of Hydrocarbons from Hydrate Bearing Sediments

The presence of natural gas hydrates at all active and passive continental margins has been proven. Their global occurrence as well as the fact that huge amounts of methane and other lighter hydrocarbons are stored in natural gas hydrates has led to the idea of using hydrate bearing sediments as an energy resource. However, natural gas hydrates remain stable as long as they are in mechanical, thermal and chemical equilibrium with their environment. Thus, for the production of gas from hydrate bearing sediments, at least one of these equilibrium states must be disturbed by depressurization, heating or addition of chemicals such as CO2. Depressurization, thermal or chemical stimulation may be used alone or in combination, but the idea of producing hydrocarbons from hydrate bearing sediments by CO2 injection suggests the potential of an almost emission free use of this unconventional natural gas resource. However, up to now there are still open questions regarding all three production principles. Within the framework of the German national research project SUGAR the thermal stimulation method by use of in situ combustion was developed and tested on a pilot plant scale and the CH4-CO2 swapping process in gas hydrates studied on a molecular level. Microscopy, confocal Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction were used for in situ investigations of the CO2-hydrocarbon exchange process in gas hydrates and its driving forces. For the thermal stimulation a heat exchange reactor was designed and tested for the exothermal catalytic oxidation of methane. Furthermore, a large scale reservoir simulator was realized to synthesize hydrates in sediments under conditions similar to nature and to test the efficiency of the reactor. Thermocouples placed in the reservoir simulator with a total volume of 425 L collect data regarding the propagation of the heat front. In addition, CH4 sensors are placed in the water saturated sediment to detect the distribution of CH4 in the sample. These data are used for numerical simulations for up-scaling from laboratory to field conditions. This study presents the experimental set up of the large scale reservoir simulator and the reactor design. Preliminary results indicate that the catalytic oxidation of CH4 operated as a temperature controlled, autothermal reaction in a countercurrent heat exchange reactor is a safe and promising tool for the thermal stimulation of hydrates. In addition, preliminary results from the laboratory studies on the CO2-hydrocarbon swapping process in simple and mixed gas hydrates are presented.

Application of frequency-domain helicopter-borne electromagnetics for groundwater exploration in urban areas

Airborne geophysical methods have been used successfully in groundwater exploration over the last decades. Particularly airborne electromagnetics is appropriate for large-scale and efficient groundwater surveying. Due to the dependency of the electrical conductivity on both the clay content of the host material and the mineralisation of the water, airborne electromagnetics is suitable for providing information on groundwater resources, water quality, aquifer conditions and protection levels. Frequency-domain helicopter-borne electromagnetic systems are used to investigate near-surface groundwater occurrences in detail even in rough terrain and populated areas. In order to reveal the subsurface conductivity distribution, the quantities measured, the secondary magnetic fields, are generally inverted into resistivity–depth models. Due to the skin-effect the penetration depths of the electromagnetic fields depend on the system characteristics used: high-frequency data describe the shallower parts of the conducting subsurface and the low-frequency data the deeper parts. Typical maximum investigation depths range from some ten metres (highly conductive saltwater saturated sediments) to several hundred metres (resistive hard rocks). In urban areas there are a number of man-made sources affecting the electromagnetic measurements. These effects on the secondary field values are discussed on the basis of synthetic data as well as uncorrected and corrected field data. The case histories of different hydrogeological setups in Indonesia, The Netherlands and Germany demonstrate that airborne electromagnetics can be applied to groundwater exploration purposes even in urban areas.

The porosity of saturated shallow sediments from seismic compressional and shear wave velocities

Abstract This study devises a new analytical relationship to determine the porosity of water-saturated soils at shallow depth using seismic compressional and shear wave velocities. Seismic refraction surveys together with soil sample collection were performed in selected areas containing water-saturated clay–silt, sand and gravely soils. Classification of clay–silt, sand and gravel dense soils provided the coefficient of experimental equation between the data sets, namely, Poisson's ratio, shear modulus and porosity values. This study presents a new analytical relationship between Poisson's ratio and shear modulus values, which are obtained from seismic velocities and porosity values of water-saturated material computed from water content and grain densities, which are determined by laboratory analysis of disturbed samples. The analytical relationship between data sets indicates that when the shear modulus of water-saturated loose soil increases, porosity decreases logarithmically. If shear modulus increases in dense or solid saturated soils, porosity decreases linearly.

Impacts of river bed gas on the hydraulic and thermal dynamics of the hyporheic zone

Despite the presence of gas in river beds being a well known phenomenon, its potential feedbacks on the hydraulic and thermal dynamics of the hyporheic zone has not been widely studied. This paper explores hypotheses that the presence of accumulated gas impacts the hydraulic and thermal dynamics of a river bed due to changes in specific storage, hydraulic conductivity, effective porosity, and thermal diffusivity. The hypotheses are tested using data analysis and modelling for a study site on the urban River Tame, Birmingham, UK. Gas, predominantly attributed to microbial denitrification, was observed in the river bed up to around 14% by volume, and to at least 0.8 m depth below river bed. Numerical modelling indicates that, by altering the relative hydraulic conductivity distribution, the gas in the river bed leads to an increase of groundwater discharge from the river banks (relative to river bed) by a factor of approximately 2 during river low flow periods. The increased compressible storage of the gas phase in the river bed leads to an increase in the simulated volume of river water invading the river bed within the centre of the channel during storm events. The exchange volume can be more than 30% greater in comparison to that for water saturated conditions. Furthermore, the presence of gas also reduces the water-filled porosity, and so the possible depth of such invading flows may also increase markedly, by more than a factor of 2 in the observed case. Observed diurnal temperature variations within the gaseous river bed at 0.1 and 0.5 m depth are, respectively, around 1.5 and 6 times larger than those predicted for saturated sediments. Annual temperature fluctuations are seen to be enhanced by around 4 to 20% compared to literature values for saturated sediments. The presence of gas may thus alter the bulk thermal properties to such a degree that the use of heat tracer techniques becomes subject to a much greater degree of uncertainty. Although the likely magnitude of thermal and hydraulic changes due to the presence of gas for this site have been demonstrated, further research is needed into the origins of the gas and its spatial and temporal variability to enable quantification of the significance of these changes for chemical attenuation and hyporheic zone biology.

Resolving scales of aquifer heterogeneity using ground penetrating radar and borehole geophysical logging

Accurate and reliable characterization of aquifer heterogeneity remains one of the foremost problems in hydrogeology. In this study, ground penetrating radar (GPR) and borehole geophysical logging are used to investigate scales of heterogeneity present locally (<500 m laterally) within an outwash deposit comprised of inter-bedded and cross-bedded sands and gravels of glaciofluvial origin. At a small scale (<15 m laterally), gamma log data in adjacent boreholes show evidence of fining upward sequences, occasional coarsening upward sequences, and abrupt changes in grain sizes, which appear to be laterally continuous at scales of 10 m. At the site scale (<500 m laterally), GPR profiles show a strong reflection interpreted as the water table. Reflectors in the unsaturated zone are more clearly defined than those beneath the water table due to signal attenuation within the saturated sediments. Undulating to discontinuous reflectors at scales of 10–15 m are interpreted to result from interbedded and cross-bedded sands and gravels. A few laterally continuous horizontal to sub-horizontal reflectors, which extend at least up to 360 m, are interpreted as unconformities, based on evidence of gravel bars, truncation of underlying units, as well as scour and fill features in a nearby gravel pit exposure. Overall, the integration of these two geophysical methods provided evidence of unit correlation at the two scales of investigation.

Relative hydraulic conductivity and effective saturation from Earth’s field nuclear magnetic resonance – a method for assessing the vadose zone

ABSTRACTBeside the water content, petrophysical nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques in the lab and in boreholes as well as in the field, provide estimates of the hydraulic conductivity of water saturated sediments and rocks. In the vadose zone, the hydraulic conductivity is a function of the water saturation. Regarding the characterization of the vadose zone, the magnetic resonance sounding (MRS) method is expected to have great potential. However, so far, the petrophysical relationship of the hydraulic properties under partial saturation conditions and the NMR parameters in the Earth’s magnetic field is not fully understood. In this study, laboratory NMR experiments in the Earth’s field (EFNMR) are performed in comparison to conventional high field NMR (HFNMR). Sand‐filled columns were used to generate partially saturated conditions by simulating capillary fringes (grain sizes from fine to coarse). We investigate the ability of both NMR techniques to determine the residual water content and the dependency of the NMR relaxation times on the water saturation degree. We note that EFNMR measurements tend to underestimate the residual water content due to long measurement dead times. Furthermore, it shows that the HFNMR relaxation time , as a function of the saturation, behaves according to the Brooks‐Corey model that describes the water retention function and thus allows for the prediction of the relative hydraulic conductivity ,. The EFNMR relaxation time as a function of the saturation degree differs from the Brooks‐Corey expectation due to the influence of the dephasing relaxation rate that is, in general, responsible for the difference of and . We assume that the dephasing relaxation rate itself, when induced by internal magnetic field gradients, depends on the water saturation. We introduce a model that accounts for this dependency with a weighting factor for the dephasing relaxation rate, given as a power law of the saturation degree. The model enables the description of as a function of the water saturation and thus provides the estimation of from . We compare the NMR based predictions with the functions estimated from gravity induced outflow experiments at the columns. The results are in agreement within half a decade for every sand sample of the study. In principle, the suggested approach can be applied for estimating in situ by MRS measurements in the vadose zone. We discuss the potential and limitations of this approach for MRS.

In situ testing of metallic iron nanoparticle mobility and reactivity in a shallow granular aquifer

This paper describes the results of a series of single well push–pull tests conducted to evaluate the in situ transport of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) stabilized nanoscale zero-valent iron (ZVI) particles in saturated sediments and their reactivity toward chlorinated ethenes. CMC-stabilized nanoscale ZVI particles were synthesized on site by reducing ferrous ions with borohydride in water in the presence of CMC. Nanoscale ZVI and bimetallic ZVI-Pd nanoparticle suspensions were prepared and injected into depth-discrete aquifer zones during three push–pull tests. The injected nanoparticle suspensions contained a conservative tracer (Br −) and were allowed to reside in the aquifer pore space for various time periods prior to recovery by groundwater extraction. The comparison between Br − and Fe concentrations in extracted groundwater samples indicated that the CMC-stabilized nanoscale ZVI particles were mobile in the aquifer but appeared to lose mobility with time, likely due to the interactions between particles and aquifer sediments. After 13 h in the aquifer, the nanoscale ZVI particles became essentially immobilized. During the push–pull test with injection of Fe–Pd nanoparticles, ethane concentrations increased from non-detectable to 65 μg/L in extracted groundwater within less than 2 h of reaction time, indicating the rapid abiotic degradation of chlorinated ethenes. The amount of total chlorinated ethene mass destroyed was low presumably because the injected solutions “pushed” the dissolved chlorinated ethenes away from the injection well, without substantial mixing, and because stationary (sorbed) chlorinated ethene mass on the aquifer sediments was low. In situ remediation programs using highly reactive metallic nanoparticles should incorporate delivery methods that maintain high groundwater pore velocities during injection to increase advective transport distances (e.g. groundwater circulation wells). Also, source zones with abundant stationary contaminant mass that is accessible by advective transport should be targeted for remediation with the nanoparticles, as opposed to portions of dissolved plumes, in order to maximize the in situ destruction of contaminants.

Recent catastrophic debris flows in Luding county, SW China: geological hazards, rainfall analysis and dynamic characteristics

About 127 debris flow gullies have been identified, and debris flows have been an important type of geological hazards in Luding County, affecting cities, towns, rural areas, scenic spots and human’s engineering projects, such as mining and waterpower utilizing equipments. In this summary paper, recent two catastrophic debris flow events occurred on June 30, 2005, in Chuni town, in the central of the county, and on August 11, 2005, in Hailuogou scenic spot, in the southwest of the county, respectively, are reviewed. The debris flow events are introduced on the basis of field investigation and RS interpretation and the triggering factors for flow occurrence are identified. Furthermore, the rainfall related to flow occurrence including antecedent rainfall and intraday rainfall is analyzed, and a power-law function which can be used as a basic warning line is established based on both antecedent effective rainfall and intraday rainfall. Then dynamic parameters such as flow velocity and flow discharge are calculated, respectively. Through comparison and discussion, some conclusions are made including (1) The antecedent rainfall played an important role for debris flows which generated predominately based on the slope-instability due to the saturated loose sediments; (2) Despite slower flow velocity and smaller magnitude, the slope-type debris flows just like 2005-6-30 debris flows usually lead to serious damages for the difficulty to forecast and to prevent; (3) The mistaken recognition on debris flow hazards and lack of prevention consciousness strengthen the hazard and damage degree. This research is of certain significance for the prevention and mitigation of debris flow hazards and for the planning of the town building and tourism development in the future.