Sarpol-e Zahab Research Articles

The effect of the great Kermanshah earthquake on the tuberculosis infection trend: interrupted time series analysis

ObjectivesTuberculosis (TB) presents a substantial danger to populations experiencing crises like earthquakes. This study aims to explore the effect of the Kermanshah earthquake on the trend of TB.MethodsThis cross-sectional study examined tuberculosis data from 2009 to 2020, using monthly diagnoses. Data was collected from the TB research office and registration system. The study employed interrupted time series (ITS) analysis to assess both the immediate and long-term impacts of the earthquake on TB cases.ResultsIn Sarpol-e Zahab, TB cases initially surged after the earthquake, indicating an immediate effect, but then significantly declined compared to pre-earthquake levels, reflecting an effect over time (β0 = 1.39, β1=-0.004, β2 = 0.11 and β3=-0.01, P = 0.001 and Post-intervention linear trend= -0.015, P < 0.001). In Ghasr-e Shirin, the average number of TB cases prior to the earthquake was estimated at 0.58 cases, with a significant monthly decrease of 0.005 cases leading up to the earthquake (P = 0.001). There was no significant immediate change in TB cases during the first month after the earthquake (β2 = 0.008, P = 0.680). Post-earthquake, TB cases dramatically increased (β3 = 0.008, P = 0.001). The monthly trend of TB cases rose significantly by 0.002 (P = 0.001), indicating an effect over time. In Salas-e Babajani, there was no immediate change in TB cases, but there was a significant long-term decline compared to the period before the earthquake (P = 0.001).ConclusionsEarthquake is one of the natural crises that provide the conditions for the increase of TB. Local health policymakers must make plans in these areas to contain TB after the earthquake.

TF-CBT for Child Earthquake Survivors: Promoting Self-Compassion, PTG, and Reducing Behavioral Problems

The present study aimed to explore the effectiveness of Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) in facilitating post-traumatic growth, increasing self-compassion, and reducing behavior problems among the children experiencing the 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab (Iran) earthquake. Among earthquake-traumatized 9-12-year-old girls, 24 were selected through purposive sampling. The 24 participants were randomly assigned to the experimental and the control group, each with 12 subjects. The experimental group received 12 sessions of TF-CBT, although 3 subjects left the experimental group during the sessions. Consequently, the analysis included 21 participants: 9 in the experimental group and 12 in the control group. The post-traumatic growth inventory for children revised (PTGI-C-R), the self-compassion scale-short form (SCS-SF), and the Rutter children’s behavior questionnaire for parents were completed at baseline, after the intervention, and one-month follow-up. The results indicated that compared to the control group the participants in the experimental group obtained higher scores in post-traumatic growth and lower scores in behavior problems (i.e., aggression and hyperactivity, and anxiety and depression) (p <.01) which were consistent in the follow-up period. It was also find out that, the experimental group reported higher levels of self-compassion in the follow-up (p <.01). The study suggests that TF-CBT may be effective in improving post-traumatic growth, self-compassion, and behavior problems among children affected by earthquake trauma.

Ramp-Flat and Splay Faulting Illuminated by Frictional Afterslip Following the 2017 Mw 7.3 Sarpol-e Zahab Earthquake

Abstract As the largest instrumentally recorded earthquake in the fold-and-thrust belt of the northwestern Zagros mountain so far, the fault structure of the 2017 Mw 7.3 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake and its contribution to regional crustal shortening remain controversial. Here, we utilize the integration of Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar observations and 2D finite element models incorporating various fault geometries such as planar faults, ramp-flat faults, and the combined models of ramp-flat and splay faults to explore frictional afterslip process due to coseismic stress changes following the mainshock. Our findings suggest that a ramp-flat frictional afterslip model, characterized by the maximum afterslip of ∼1.0 m and frictional variations (Δμ) of ∼0.001 and ∼0.0002 for the up-dip and down-dip portions, respectively, better explains the long-wavelength postseismic deformation than planar fault models. However, an integration model of a ramp-flat and a splay fault further improves the model fit, although the splay fault’s frictional slip is limited to &amp;lt;0.2 m, which is much smaller than that on the ramp-flat part (∼0.9 m). Considering the relocated aftershocks and structural cross-sections, the combined model could be best attributed to fault slip on the blind Mountain Front fault. Our findings thus suggest the complexity of the fault interactions between the basement and sedimentary cover in the Zagros, and that this largest basement-involved event in the region contributes to both thick- and thin-skinned shortening via seismic and aseismic behaviors, respectively.

Seismic performance of buildings during the magnitude 7.3 Kermanshah, Iran earthquake

In this paper, the findings and data of a large-scale reconnaissance mission following the November 12, 2017, M7.3 Kermanshah earthquake near the Iran-Iraq border are presented. The earthquake affected multiple cities in both countries and led to widespread damage and notable casualties and fatalities. The highest peak ground acceleration was recorded in Sarpol-e Zahab at 0.7g. As part of two trips, the data on nearly 1200 buildings in eight cities were collected by devising a sampling scheme to maximize the coverage of the survey, which was then employed to compile regional damage statistics. The spatial distribution of damage is presented for the entire region as well as various cities and neighborhoods in each city. The damage statistics are also disaggregated based on structural building, occupancies, and risk categories. The damage sustained by various categories of building components and contents is also assessed. In addition, the damage at the component level is closely examined for the structural and nonstructural components of severely damaged buildings to reveal the underlying causes that root in poor construction practices, lax enforcement of the building code, and inadequate seismic design provisions. Finally, the damage to hospitals in the region is investigated. This data, which can be augmented through a similar approach in the aftermath of probable future earthquakes, is key in calibrating the regional risk and resilience analysis of communities.

Content of saponin, tannin, and flavonoid in the leaves and fruits of Iranian populations from Rhamnus persica Boiss. (Rhamnaceae)

To study the phytochemical properties in the leave and fruit of Iranian populations of Rhamnus persica Boiss, eighteen different populations from six geographical regions of Kermanshah province were studied. The results showed that the highest and lowest leaf saponin was present in Aliabad (6.40 mg/g) in Eslamabad-e Gharb and Chaharzebar in Mahidasht (3.29 mg/g), respectively. In fruit saponin, the highest content was in the population of Arkavazi in Eslamabad-e Gharb (4.33 mg/g) and the lowest being in Mahidasht population (Chaharzebar) and Sarpol-e Zahab (Galin) each with 2.20 mg/g. About the leaf tannin, the highest and lowest values were available in Barf-Abad population in Eslamabad-e Gharb (4.57 mg/g) and Chaharzebar in Mahidasht (1.83 mg/g), respectively. In addition, in the case of fruit tannin, the highest amount in Meleh-Sorkh population belonged to Homeil (2.74 mg/g) and the lowest being in of Changizeh population (Sonqor) in 2.28 mg/g. Moreover, the highest and lowest leaf flavonoids were obtained in two populations including Gordi in Eslamabad-e Gharb (6.14 mg/g) and Changizeh from Sonqor (4.09 mg/g), respectively. Regarding fruit flavonoids, the highest and lowest amounts were observed in populations of Meleh-Sorkh from Homeil (3.45 mg/g) and Banganjab in Mahidasht (2.13 mg/g). These findings confirmed the effect of geographical location on changing the phytochemical characteristics of Rhamnus populations in Kermanshah province from Iran.

Characterization and prediction of InSAR-derived ground motion with ICA-assisted LSTM model

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) is a highly effective and widely used approach for monitoring large-scale ground deformation. The precise and timely prediction of deformation holds significant importance in mitigating and preventing geological hazards, particularly considering the long revisit cycle of satellites and the considerable time required for data processing. In this study, we propose a strategy that predicts spatiotemporal InSAR time series based on Independent Component Analysis (ICA) and the Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) machine learning model. Unlike traditional methods that rely on physical or statistical models, the proposed strategy leverages the power of ICA and LSTM to achieve accurate predictions without such dependencies. ICA is employed to decompose and capture the InSAR displacement signals of interest caused by various natural or anthropogenic processes and to characterize each individual signal. The spatiotemporal unsupervised K-mean cluster method is then applied to partition large-scale deformation fields into homogeneous subregions, considering the spatial variations and temporal nonlinearities of time series. This process facilitates the refinement of the model, thereby enhancing the accuracy of large-scale predictions. The neural network models are then individually constructed for each cluster, and the optimal parameters are determined through a grid search strategy. Subsequently, the proposed framework is implemented and assessed using two datasets featuring distinct deformation patterns: Case I involves land subsidence in Willcox Basin, USA, while Case II focuses on post-seismic deformation following the 12 November 2017 Mw 7.3 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake. The results demonstrate that our proposed ICA-assisted LSTM outperforms the original LSTM model on large-scale deformation prediction, with the average prediction accuracy for one-step prediction (12 days in our case) being improved by 34% and 17% for cases I and II, respectively. Furthermore, we perform iterative predictions on the spatiotemporal InSAR measurements with varying temporal characteristics for the subsequent five steps using Sentinel-1 data and evaluate its performance and limitations. The successful prediction of land subsidence and post-seismic deformation provides further evidence that the proposed prediction strategy can be effectively employed in monitoring other large-scale geohazards characterized by prolonged and gradual deformation. This capability enables expedited decision-making and timely implementation of risk mitigation measures.

A novel sampling approach for prediction of post-earthquake damage to buildings

Predicting damage to buildings using field-based samples is important for crisis management after an earthquake. Because building damage in seismic regions is spatially correlated, neighboring samples will contain similar information. However, if they are treated as independent observations, the total sample set will not provide sufficient information. To prevent this, sample locations must be dispersed throughout the region and the spatial correlation of observations must be taken into account. The current study proposes a two-stage sampling approach to select well-dispersed samples of small size containing substantial information. The sample locations have been chosen using the Halton iterative partitioning method and individual buildings were randomly selected for each location. The selected sample buildings were employed in a kriging regression model to predict the damage ratio. Multiple factors were used in the model as predictor variables to increase the prediction accuracy. The proposed sampling approach was compared to other sampling methods in terms of spatial balance and prediction error using both simulated and real datasets from the 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake in Iran. The proposed approach provided better results than the other approaches. Although some factors affected the building damage in the actual data, a combination of fault strike angles and seismic intensity measures provided more accurate predictions than other combinations.

Post-earthquake seismic assessment of residential buildings following Sarpol-e Zahab (Iran) earthquake (Mw7.3) – Part 2: Seismic vulnerability curves using quantitative damage index

One of the most crucial steps in disaster management and decision-making is a quick and reliable seismic evaluation of structures following an earthquake. Vulnerability curves, which relate the earthquake intensity measure to damage states, are key terms in performing post-earthquake assessments. In most previous research, empirical vulnerability curves were roughly developed using qualitative criteria. Current research proposes a novel damage index based on the suggested damage states resulting from field investigation of more than 81 damaged steel and RC buildings after the Sarpol-e Zahab (Iran) earthquake. The proposed damage index provides relatively precise information about damaged buildings. Then, using the spectral acceleration derived from the conditional ground motion intensity and the proposed damage index, empirical vulnerability curves are generated for RC and steel buildings and non-structural walls. The developed empirical vulnerability curves are valuable due to the lack of similar field studies on damaged buildings under severe earthquakes and are consistent with common practice of construction in Iran. Past earthquakes' data can be used in seismic risk assessment and planning for mitigation of losses in the future.

Post-earthquake seismic assessment of residential buildings following Sarpol-e Zahab (Iran) earthquake (Mw7.3) part 1: Damage types and damage states

Following a disaster, a quick and reliable evaluation of structural damage and its classification is one of the crucial steps to making decisions and disaster management. Based on a reliable evaluation of structural damage and proper classification of buildings, decisions related to structural performance (functionality), repair possibility, or in severe cases, a replacement could be made. The results of current research are obtained from a comprehensive and meticulous investigation of more than 81 damaged steel and RC buildings after the Sarpol-e Zahab (Iran) earthquake. First, a detailed explanation of various types of structural and non-structural damage to buildings is provided. Then, based on the severity, extent, and types of damage and the observed residual drift for steel structures, buildings are classified into five damage states. The damage types are the more frequently observed damage in different elements. The inherent quantitative classification of buildings into five damage states makes this approach a precise and useful tool to investigate buildings more reliably following earthquakes. Part-1 of this research (current paper) discusses various types of observed damage and the classification of buildings into damage states. In part-2 of this research (accompanying paper), a damage index is proposed based on the results of part-1 and empirical vulnerability curves for different types of damaged buildings are developed.

Prevalence of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in People With a History of Hospitalization With COVID-19 and Its Relationship With Socio-economic Status

Background: COVID-19 has had many negative consequences in all aspects of human life, especially physical and mental health. This study aims to determine the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in people with a history of hospitalization with COVID-19 and its relationship with socio-economic status (SES). Materials and Methods: The present study was a cross-sectional descriptive study and the statistical population of the study included all people with a history of being infected with COVID-19 and subsequent hospitalization in Shohada Hospital of Sarpol-e Zahab, Kermanshah Province, Iran. The sample members were randomly selected from the list of hospitalized patients. A total of 479 people were evaluated face to face using the PTSD Checklist Scale (PCL-S) questionnaire to examine PTSD, as well as the Ghodrat Nama et al.’s SES questionnaire to determine the SES. The data were analyzed using SPSS software, version 21 and by Chi-square test, one-way ANOVA, and Pearson correlation coefficient (P≤0.05). Results: The prevalence of PTSD was 31.10%. No significant relationship was observed between socioeconomic status and the prevalence of PTSD (P=0.97). Among the demographic variables, only gender had a significant relationship with the prevalence of this disorder (P=0.00) and the prevalence was higher in women than in men. Conclusion: The prevalence of PTSD is high in people with a history of hospitalization with COVID-19. Getting infected with COVID-19 and subsequent hospitalization hurts people’s mental health. Maintaining the mental health of this group of people should be considered.

Depth-varying Friction on a Ramp-flat Fault Illuminated by ~3-year InSAR Observations Following the 2017 Mw 7.3 Sarpol-e Zahab Earthquake

Depth-varying Friction on a Ramp-flat Fault Illuminated by ~3-year InSAR Observations Following the 2017 Mw 7.3 Sarpol-e Zahab Earthquake

Evaluating the Use of Multisite Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis: A Case of Sarpol-e Zahab City, Iran.

This paper evaluates the use of multisite (MS) probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA), which estimates the annual exceedance rate of a given level of ground motion in at least one of several sites as one of several possible results. For this purpose, (1) MS-PSHA is implemented through the Monte Carlo approach, taking into account various area sizes and correlation distances (CDs), and then (2) two proposals are represented as applications of MS-PSHA outcomes, both with reference to Sarpol-e Zahab City, a seismically active region located in the west of Iran. The first proposal attempts to determine the current code design probability of exceedance in at least one site, and the second one defines collapse prevention levels based on different probabilities of exceedance in at least one site. The efficiency of the results is discussed mainly by comparing them to recorded peak ground accelerations (PGAs) of three earthquakes, including the 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab 7.3 Mw event that largely exceeded the code design spectrum. MS-PSHA results demonstrate reasonable performance both in determining design ground motions and evaluating current design code when the exact seismic parameters of the study area are used in the analysis. Moreover, developed code-type design spectra based on MS-PSHA provided safety against collapse compared to a recently occurring low-probability event. MS estimates for various CDs and probabilities of exceedance in at least one site can also provide flexible design strategies regarding the importance of a structure and expected damage on a regional scale.

An Assessment of Social Resilience against Natural Hazards through Multi-Criteria Decision Making in Geographical Setting: A Case Study of Sarpol-e Zahab, Iran

The aim of this study was to propose an approach for assessing the social resilience of citizens, using a locative multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) model for an exemplary case study of Sarpol-e Zahab city, Iran. To do so, a set of 10 variables and 28 criteria affecting social resilience were used and their weights were measured using the Analytical Hierarchy Process, which was then inserted into the Weighted Linear Combination (WLC) model for mapping social resilience across our case study. Finally, the accuracy of the generated social resilience map, the correlation coefficient between the results of the WLC model and the accuracy level of the social resilience map were assessed, based on in-situ data collection after conducting a survey. The outcomes revealed that more than 60% of the study area falls into the low social resilience category, categorized as the most vulnerable areas. The correlation coefficient between the WLC model and the social resilience level was 79%, which proves the acceptability of our approach for mapping social resilience of citizens across cities vulnerable to diverse risks. The proposed methodological approach, which focuses on chosen data and presented discussions, borne from this study can be beneficial to a wide range of stakeholders and decision makers in prioritizing resources and efforts to benefit more vulnerable areas and inhabitants.

Evaluation of Women’s Reproductive Health Status After the 2017 earthquake in Kermanshah, Iran

Background: Women are at higher risk of death during disasters due to physical, biological, psychological, and cultural differences. After a disaster, they experience more miscarriages, premature births, inadequate fetal growth, low birth weight, sexual violence, and unwanted pregnancies. This study aims to investigate the reproductive health status of women affected by the 2017 earthquake in Kermanshah, Iran. Materials and Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in 2018. The study population consists of women aged 15-49 years (Mean age=31.7 years) living in Sarpol-e Zahab, Javanrood, and Thalas Babajani towns in Kermanshah city affected by the earthquake in 2017. The questionnaire used for assessing the status of reproductive health in women was the Reproductive Health Assessment Questionnaire for Women of Reproductive Age, which has already been localized in Iran and its reliability and validity have been confirmed. Native Kurdish language experts completed the questionnaires on behalf of 396 participants. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the variables. Results: It was found that 42.4% of women complained of abnormal menstruation and 34.09% of limited menstrual hygiene materials. Sixty women were pregnant at the time of the earthquake, all of whom gave birth in hospital; two had miscarriages, two had premature births, and one had stillbirth. Urinary tract infection was the most common problem (21%) in pregnant women. Moreover, 48% of women used contraceptive methods after the earthquake, the most commonly used method was the use of contraceptive pills (23%). Access to contraception methods was difficult for 14.4% of them after the earthquake. Furthermore, 25% had experienced violence after the earthquake; of these, 30 reported physical violence, 86 verbal violence, and 13 sexual violence. Conclusion: The control of pregnancy and safe delivery in earthquake-affected areas of Kermanshah is relatively acceptable; however, the provision of reproductive health services seems to be challenging. It is recommended to pay attention to the menstrual hygiene of women and regular distribution of contraceptives (despite the current population growth plan), address sexual acts of violence, and develop a protocol to support the victims.

Earthquake-Induced Ground Deformation Assessment via Sentinel-1 Radar Aided at Darbandikhan Town

Deformation monitoring has conventional increasing consideration in recent years due to its great importance in modern engineering. Darbandikhan town was hit by a strong earthquake on 12th November 2017 which is the Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake. Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) technique has been used to investigate Darbandikhan town stability and the surrounding areas of the Kurdistan region in Iraq. The purpose of this research is to estimate the ground vertical displacement induced by the earthquake as well as the east-west deformation components. Moreover, previous research covered more of Iran’s side country that the earthquake had an impact on with little on Iraq’s side (Northern-eastern of Iraq), so it was worth researching on Darbandikhan town and surrounding structures to estimate the displacement on its infrastructures. For this study, two pairs of Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images are used from each ascending and descending tracks over the study area to validate the work. Then, two differential interferograms are created from these images, along Darbandikhan town and the surrounding areas. These differential interferograms are then converted to line of sight (LOS) displacements using open source software (SNAP 8.0). The overall vertical displacement of the residential area of Darbandikhan was estimated from -4 to -10 cm after the earthquake, and the overall east-west displacement was ranging from 2 to 6.4 cm. The current study does not only examine the northern east of Iraq but the whole area of Iran and Iraq in general that lies within the influence of the earthquake. This research could be useful to estimate the overall deformation of Darbandikhan town in particular and the whole area in general. Therefore, the authorities and civil engineers could think of more sustainable buildings and structures before they start to plan within the area of earthquake impact.

Investigating the relationship between satisfaction of basic psychological needs, general health, and some background variables in the Iranian older adults: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundPromoting the health and mental health (MH) of the older adults making up a large part of the world’s population in the coming years can provide the necessary conditions for their health and well-being of them. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the satisfaction of basic psychological needs (BPNs), general health (GH), and some variables in Iranian older adults.MethodsThe present descriptive-correlational study was conducted on 780 older adults from Sarpol-e Zahab (Kermanshah) in 2019 including the study by multi-stage cluster random sampling. The data collection tool was BPNs satisfaction and GH questionnaire and a researcher-made questionnaire of individual and background information. Was used for data analysis using the SPSS version 16 program and descriptive statistics and tests Pearson correlation coefficient, chi-square test, independent-sample T-test, and multivariate linear regression.ResultsIn the present study, participating a total of 780 older adult men aged 73.0 ± 29.32 years. There was a significant relationship between the satisfaction of BPNs and GH (p < 0.001). Also, 41% of the older adults were in poor GH and 30% were high in BPNs. Multiple logistic regression showed that the BPNs, age, income satisfaction, weather, and war zone were strong predictors of GH. the adjusted R2 value of 0.55 shows that the model described 55% of changes in the GH score.ConclusionAccording to the findings of the study on the relationship between the satisfaction of BPNs and GH, providing insurance, social and economic support by developing health policies, creating supportive health environments, strengthening community action, and developing individual skills in the older adults can help improve their MH and that of the community.

Lived experiences of adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder caused by Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake: a phenomenological study

Introduction: Earthquake is one of the most important natural disasters that in addition to the destructive material effects, it also brings adverse psychological consequences for the victims; one of the most important of them is post-traumatic stress disorder. Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the lived experiences of adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder caused by Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake. Method: The method of the present study was qualitative and with a descriptive phenomenological strategy. The statistical population of the study was adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder caused by Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake in 2021. The sample consisted of 15 earthquake-stricken adolescents aged 13-19 years old with post-traumatic stress disorder who were selected by purposive sampling. The research tool was in-depth and semi-structured interviews. The obtained data were also analyzed by Colaizzi method. Results: Participants’ citations were recorded, analyzed and coded by Colaizzi method, and finally 83 primary codes (semantic unit), 4 main themes (themes) and 25 sub-themes (categories) were obtained. The main themes included: sudden disruption of life, psychological problems, disorder in communication functions (social / family) and challenges related to spirituality. Conclusion: The findings of this study showed that adolescent’s victims of earthquakes experience various crises and problems in different aspects of life such as: mental health, family and social life and spirituality, which need attention, and professional and specialized support.

Investigating the influential post-disaster factors in determining the optimal location of shelters: A case study, Sarpol-e Zahab, Kermanshah province, Iran

A proper location is one of the most influential factors in shelter performance. Although considerable research focuses on finding a suitable site for temporary shelters, only a few address the effect of post-disaster circumstances on discovering the optimal location. This study primarily aims to investigate the influential factors in determining a suitable place for temporary shelters after a crisis. Therefore, an algorithm is proposed. This algorithm is achieved by analyzing and computing the post-crisis urban route and facility accessibility based on photogrammetric photographs taken by an unmanned aerial vehicle/satellite.

Rock Mortars of Sar Pol-e Zahab in their Archaeological Contexts: Evidence of third and second Millennium BCE Nomads Camp Sites in Western Foothills of Zagros Mountain, Iran

During the 2016 archaeological survey in the Sar Pol-e Zahab region, in the border zone between Mesopotamia lowland and Iranian highland, a number of rock mortars were discovered on the edges of seven ancient sites. Owing to its climate and topography and its winter pastures, this region has long been favoured by nomads, and numerous remains of nomadic activities survive. The sites in question are small settlements that have been attributed to nomadic occupation owing to their small area, thin occupational deposits and extremely limited finds. Most of these sites are located near water sources such as springs and rivers. Furthermore, the associated cultural materials are not of high quality. This is in stark contrast to the settlements of farmers and sedentary settlers in the central range and western foothills of the Zagros, the remains of which formed relatively large mounds with complex stratigraphy representing extended occupations accompanied by cultural materials showing a higher degree of workmanship and artistry. In many cases, these characteristics are enough to distinguish the settlements of sedentary farmers from those of herdsmen and nomads. It appears that the nomads of the region, particularly in the third-second millennium BCE and in the Parthian period, used these permanently located rock mortars to grind grains and cereals during their seasonal occupation of these sites. These mortars are not out of context, they are related to the ancient settlements on whose periphery they are found.

Performance of confined masonry buildings in November 2017, Sarpole Zahab earthquake (Mw = 7.3), Iran

Performance of confined masonry buildings in November 2017, Sarpole Zahab earthquake (Mw = 7.3), Iran